English Language Key Concepts

Audience

Audience refers to the particular kind of reader or listener for which a text is intended for - a target audience. It is important to consider the needs of the audience and how well a text meets them. It is vital to remember that a text you are analysing is unlikely to have been intended for you, so identifying the target audience and empathising with them is key. 

Context

There are two key parts to context: The context of production - the situation and circumstances which causes the author of the text to communicate an idea to some else in the form of a text, whether written or spoken. The has an impact on the text's creation. The context of reception - the situation and circumstances in which the audience reads/hears the text. This has an impact on the meanings a text creates. The word 'context' is derived from the Latin word 'weave together'. Thus, in this context, context refers to the way in which elements of the social, cultural and historical circumstances of both its production, and somewhat, its reception are woven into the text. Context also includes how attitudes to the content within the text may have changed. For instance, contemporary attitudes to concepts such as war, masculinity, femininity, heroism and cowardice are very different to the attitudes during the First World War, in which a soldier may be writing to his sweetheart. 

The sum total of the social, cultural and historical context under which we live is given the name zeitgeist. We are all affected by out current age's zeitgeist, in terms of our attitude to many things, such as gender, sexuality, ethnicity, and youth and age.

Discourse

A discourse is a text considered in its real-world context of use, and how the text is organised. Thus, all discourse, to some extent, is context-bound. Discourses are no more than acts of communication between people, such as a conversation, a piece of homework, a novel, a short story in a magazine, a newspaper ad, a business letter, a leaflet, a textbook, a text message and an email. For instance, if a conversation between a mother and their child was transcribed and used in an English Language lesson, it might be analysed simply for its semantic value, however it is important to recognise its context and the text as a whole as a 21st century, middle class, parent-son/daughter discourse. Certain linguistic features of the text would suggest the relationship between the participants, the power differentials that exist between them and their linguistic competence.

To analyse discourse fully, you must take into consideration four points in time; the conception and production of a text, as well as its reception and interpretation. Signposting words are used to organise a discourse structure. Examples of discourse structures: telephone conversation academic essay story recipe website letter

The Effect of Language

When language is used, it creates effects on its audience. Important effects created by language include; engaging its readers, moving them emotionally, surprising, attracting or entertaining them, and creating authority or trust.

Field

The field of a discourse is simply an answer to the question, 'What is it generally about - its subject matter?' The field of a discourse will always be made evident by the existence within it of field specific lexis (i.e words related to that particular subject).

Genre

Genre simply means type or kind. As we grow and learn about the world, we develop a mental set of prototypes or 'maps' for different people and things we meet or experience. This works so that when we meet someone new or encounter something we have no prior experience of, we can categorise it into one of these prototypes and thus know how to respond to it.  Thus, it is important to note that the audience's reception of a particular text may be socially conditioned and of little use.  Graphology is an important part of genre, as we can deduce what sort of genre a text has simply by examining its layout.  A generic text is one which follows the conventions applicable to its genre. Genre ConventionsThe genre conventions of a text are the first thing noticed about a text and this is what makes genre potentially important.

We are all 'conditioned' to react to genetic texts in 'culturally determined' ways. These generic aspects work at a subconscious level and affect both the reception and interpretation of a text. 'Reader-response' theorists These theorists suggest that genre conventions are one of the ways in which texts 'position' their audience and 'construct' and 'ideal reader,' as it influences the initial reception and eventual interpretation of the text.  Louis Althusser suggests that the generic aspects can be said to act in a way that 'calls' to the reader to respond with a particular mindset. For instance, the genre of a news article creates a powerful sense of authenticity, trustworthiness and authority, as does a lifestyle magazine. This means that the general conventions of publishing acts to create similar effects, regardless of the content of the publication.

Genre Conventions

Novels - tell a story, mostly fictional, but sometimes based on real life events, climatic moments where the protagonist has to solve problems, plot, characters, narrated by protagonist or omniscient narrator, descriptive writing, dialogue, organised in chapters, few pictures, not always chronological, hard copy/electronic, crafted writing (drafted and edited over a long period) resolution at the end of the novel (problems resolved or circumstances changed, flashbacks and flashforwards, self-contained usually as part of a series Newspaper report - non-fiction, account of real events that happened recently (normally current affairs), eye witness accounts, third person, primary and secondary sources of information, unbiased, author information and perhaps a photograph, headline, subheading (tagline), photographs, videos (if online), digital and hard copies, no columns if online, online=BTL, hard copy=ATL, personalised adverts Transcript of a conversation - dialogue only, simultaneous speech, punctuated by para-language and non-traditional punctuation (if transcribed), repetition, false starts, only makes sense within a certain context, contextual information in brackets, non-standard English, politeness features (back channelling, turn taking, running repair) Remember that a transcript is a written record of a conversation or utterance that was originally spoken, whereas a script is written first, then spoken.

Travel blog - account of places the author has been to, non-fiction, opinion-based, pictures, personal, unmoderated, descriptive, recent reflection (no hindsight) Text message - mostly informal (depends on context, first person, abbreviations, emojis, lack of capital letters and correct grammar, very personal (individual style), pictures, links, restricted code (personal language that relies on shared context), may refer to things outside of the text with no direct reference to it, business advertisements, attachments Emails (similar to texts) - subject lines, list of emails, salutations (sign off, automatic signature), varied formality (dependent on context and greeting), attachments, hyperlinks, pictures, emails in capitals=shouting, addressees=blind copies (cannot see other recipients)

Grammar

Grammar is the set of rules or 'rule-like conventions' that users of language follow so that their sentences can carry the meaning intended. You need to have knowledge of sentence structure (syntax) and word form (morphology). There are three types of grammar: Standard grammar - grammar of the prestige English dialect, also known as Standard English.  Non-standard grammar - feature of some regional dialects, e.g) 'I don't want any' vs. 'I don't want none' (double negative) Inaccurate grammar - feature of spontaneous speech, mistakes easily made

People use certain types of grammar for various reasons: Divergence - when a user intends to separate themselves linguistically from others Convergence - when a language user attempts to match the other users of language 'Hypercorrection' - when a user tries to create for themselves a prestige for themselves through over-formality? It is important to note that everyone regularly departs from the grammar of Standard English, which is sometimes deliberate e.g) text messages are often informalhttp://www.englishbiz.co.uk/grammar/index.htmMore notes on grammar

Graphology

Graphology refers to the form of a written text (including its shape, layout and appearance).  Originally, graphology only referred to the appearance of a person's handwriting, however, now it refers to the form and appearance of a text that may modify the meaning in any way. Graphology encompasses all visual aspects of a text: layout, font face, the use of colour, italics, bold, underline, letter headings, headlines, columns, tables and bullet points, to name a few.  The form of the text will have been chosen so that the text complies with genre conventions, accounts for the context of its use and to make the text more pleasing to the eye and/or useful to the mind. This is important in relation to audience, as younger readers would require different graphological decisions to be made compared with an older demographic.  Purpose will also determine graphological style. For example, an instructional text will require a different layout to a descriptive one.  The graphology of a text is the very first aspect of a text that is perceived by its audience, and thus it has an influential impact on its reception and interpretation.

As audiences, we have been conditioned to the generic appearance of particular texts, and this process begins at a graphological level. Graphology can trigger conditioned mind-sets that materially affect the way in which the text is received and interpreted. Why are certain graphological aspects being used? It is a good idea to tackle the graphological aspects of a texts first within the essay, as graphology is what you will notice first. However, it doesn't carry many marks within the exam, because it is so obvious.  More on graphology

Ideology

Ideologies are the 'generally accepted' ideas about life, society and the world that most people in society share with others. Ideology is an aspect of discourse analysis. Ideologies are what create a society or culture's mindset or world view; they suggest to us that whilst life isn't perfect, we live in or are working towards 'the best possible of all worlds'. i.e) Our society's beliefs are the right ones and the other's beliefs are less enlightened. We are conditioned into accepting these ways of thinking as we grow up, as the family, religion and school instil and reinforce and maintain such values. Importantly, these ideologies come to us through the language we meet and use in our everyday lives. For example, ideological language is used in the tabloid newspaper headline; 'Yob culture leads to dumbing down of BBC drama output' Read more about IdeologyRead more about binary opposition here and hereRead more about narrative

Texts are created by speakers who share important beliefs concerning what is right or wrong, or perhaps about the way things should be for the best in society, Such ideas rarely have to be justified because they are seen by the majority in that society as 'natural' or 'common sense', and perhaps the result of 'history', 'progress,' and 'enlightenment.' One way of examining a text at the level of its ideological content is to look for the use of ideologically loaded language. Such language always has a judgemental value as well as its meaning. Such language is also transparent and difficult to identify because we live under the spell of ideologies. It can a passive effect, as it work to ideologically position you as a reader. Many 'ideologically loaded' words carry judgemental value because their meaning is relational; they exist in binary pairs. e.g) middle class/working class, housewife/working mother, freedom fighter/terrorist, hero/coward, normal/abnormal, The West/The East Some linguists maintain that all language, and all meaning and truth, is an 'ideological construct.'

Idiolect

An idiolect refers to a personal language variety shaped by such things as social characteristics and education. An idiolect shows itself through lexical choices, pronunciation and grammatical patterns.

Ironic Edge

Pragmatic value is produced by the use of irony within an utterance; a sense of there being meaning in addition to and different from the literal.

Lexis and Semantics

Lexis concerns word choice, and semantics concerns meaning.Lexical item - a wordLexeme - a root wordLexicon - stock of words such as exists in a dictionary (your individual lexicon is your own personal vocabulary or stock of words) Words have two separate aspects that are useful for analyses - form and content. Form refers to the shape and sound of something, which is perceived by the eyes and ears and is strongly linked to graphology. The content of a word is its meaning. This includes pragmatic meaning.  Some lexical choices go together habitually. e.g) 'fish and chips' and 'home and dry' are almost cliches, collocated. Lexis could be used to create imagery (metaphorically) or to create mood. Emotive lexis are words used to evoke emotions in the reader, or hyperbole (exaggeration) might be used predominantly in a piece of persuasive writing. A newspaper article may have a lack of emotive lexis, in attempts to remain detached and objective. Euphemisms are words or phrases that soften the reality of word. e.g) 'let someone go' (fire them), 'downsize a company' (fire lots of people), 'ethnic cleansing' (slaughter people of a different race) A politician may use euphemistic lexis when talking about a difficult subject like war. Lexical choice may create alliteration or other phonological features.

Lexical and Semantic Fields A series of lexical items throughout a text which are related through their semantic value is known as a lexical or semantic field. For instance, an instruction manual for how to use a computer mouse will heavily rely on the semantic field of computer technology. Where semantic fields become interesting analytically is where one semantic field is used to metaphorically describe another. e.g.) In a report about a football match, the semantic field of war may be useful; He gunned down the opposition, shooting straight into the back of the net. Denotation - the generally accepted or literal meaning  Connotation - in certain contexts, certain words can take on associated meanings beyond their denontation Idiomatic language - a non-literal way of using language that adds colour to conversation and description Idiomatic expressions - a natural part of everyday colloquial language that make life very difficult for learners: e.g) I'm up to my neck in you-know-what! Up yours mate!I'm all fingers and thumbs today.

Method

Particular effects are created by the use of certain language methods. Having a good technical vocabulary will allow you to recognise a writer or speaker's linguistic methods.

Mode

The mode of a text usually refers to how it is being encountered. For example, a text could be received by hearing it read on the radio, or reading it in a novel. If it is being heard directly from a speaker, it has a spoken mode. If it is being read, the mode will be written, typed or electronically displayed. If it is being heard after having being mediated through a secondary source such as a telephone, the internet or TV, it might show features of both written and spoken modes, meaning that it is multimodal or mixed mode. Mode is closely linked to the channel of discourse which refers to the medium through which the text is being transmitted.

There is also a second use of the word 'mode'.  It can be used to describe a dominant aspect of the style of a text.  Poetry uses a strongly metaphorical mode, whilst a novel makes use of a largely narrative mode.

Paralinguistic Features

In speech, the body and facial 'language' is an important part of communication, and they are collectively referred to as paralinguistic features or para-language. This is important as the social context of a conversation, such as the time, place and presence of different relationships between speakers and listeners, may infer or suggest meanings beyond the literal content or denotation of the words chosen. For example, the meaning of particular words and/or phrases will be influenced by who is speaking, as well as when, where and why they speak.

Phonology and Phonetics

Phonetics is the study of the physical production of speech sounds (also known as articulation). You will only need a very basic understanding of this. Phonology is the study of how sound affect the meaning, reception and interpretation of texts. You will a much greater understanding of phonology for the exam. Phonemes - If the sound of a word is broken down into the smallest parts that are distinct because they help to create meaning, the smallest of these parts is known as a phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that alters either the meaning or grammatical function of a word. Phonemes allow us to distinguish one word from another. e.g) In the word 'cod', the 'c' is the phoneme. If this 'c' was replaced with a 'p' or 'n', the entire word and its meaning would be different. Morphology is the study of word structure. e.g) 'Beanz meanz Heinz' shows how the plural 's' has been replaced with a 'z' to connect the three words phonetically (and visually).

Sound is important in many ways to language. Phonological aspects such as intonation, emphasis, stress, silence and pauses (also known as suprasegmental or prosodic features) are important to the reception and interpretation of language.  There's a saying; 'It ain't what you say, it's the way that you say it.' Sound patterning forms an interesting and often important aspect of language. Alliteration - repetition of initial sounds e.g) 'Big is beautiful' Assonance - repetition of initial vowel sounds e.g) 'How now, brown cow' Rhyme - repetition of end sounds e.g) 'Bush's gain means Afghan's pain' Tone - the expression of attitude through voice Onomatopoeia - a word that sounds like what it tells of e.g) 'the splatter of blood' Slang - colloquial, non-standard informal language regarded as inappropriate for formal use Taboo language - swear words depending for effect on their sound Triadic structure Patterning Repetition Onomatopoeia - words sounding like the sounds they describe e.g) bang, clash

Pragmatics

The additional inferred level of meaning is referred to as pragmatic meaning. It is the extra meaning of lexis that arises from the social force of the utterance rather than its normal semantic value. e.g) Sarcasm is a feature of pragmatic meaning. The sentence 'Oh, you've made a great job of that!' is meant semantically/literally as a compliment. However, in a certain context, the element of sarcasm can cause it to mean 'you've made a right mess of that!' We often choose to infer meanings instead of spelling them out explicitly, perhaps to save time or imply relationships (often of power). Pragmatic inferences will be found regularly in discourses that occur when an unequal power relationship is present. The power that exists in social relationships can be of two kinds; instrumental power - supported by the law, rules or codes of practice e.g) headmaster's right to expel a student Influential power - power of social position or personal persuasion Many social groups use language in what is sometimes referred to as 'short-cut mode'. This is where meaning can only be inferred from the context by which the discourse occurs, meaning that an outsider would struggle to understand what is being meant.

Example:But if you don't give me the money, Mum, I'll have to work extra hours to pay for it. This is a teenager their mother for money for a school trip.  There is a force intended here, as the speaker makes use of pragmatic meaning to achieve their objective and persuade their parent.  The pragmatic meaning of this discourse is along the lines of; If I have to work more hours, I'll have less time for schoolwork, which ultimately means I will fail. Your refusal to pay for the school trip will directly contribute to my poor exam results and ruined future prospects. This subtle level of inference is entirely dependent upon social context, and thus, the social relationships which exist at the time in which the conversation occurs. 

Purpose

When language is used, there is always a purpose to its use - a purpose for the target audience. Remember that texts often have more than one purpose. e.g.) A newspaper article will also persuade and entertain its readers, as well as inform them. There are two levels of purpose you should be aware of; Particular local purpose - the purpose of the entire text as a whole individual local effect - the purpose of the individual elements of a text (e.g. individual paragraphs, text-boxes and pictures)

Register

A register is a language variety that shows particular features that are typical of its specific social situation. Registers often show examples of field-specific lexis.

Rhetoric

Rhetoric is using language persuasively. Both written and spoken language use features of rhetoric, with advertisements and politician's speeches being classic examples. Rhetorical question - most obvious rhetorical feature, where a question is asked without an obvious answer; e.g) Do you want to pay higher taxes? Lexical choices - the connotations of words are particularly important e.g) 'field sports' different to 'blood sports' Phonology: Alliteration e.g) Many mulberries made up the magical pie; Assonance, (repetition of a vowel sound): Triadic structure (pattern of three) e.g) We have sought justice in the past, we seek justice today, and we will seek justice in the future. Figurative language - using similes, metaphors and other imagery to create powerful and emotive images in the audiences' mind e.g) Use your head when you've lost your heart Metonymy - using a word or phrase to stand in for a noun e.g) No. 10 issued a denial

Repetition - e.g) Victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of terror, victory however long the road may be. Hyperbole - exaggeration e.g) Unbelievable! Unrepeatable! Massive sale! Litotes - understatements e.g) He wasn't short of money. 

Spoken Language

Although conversation is seen as unstructured and friendly, linguists have tried to show that conversation follows fundamental principles. H.P. Grice said that conversation proceeds on the assumption that those conversing share goals and have agreed ways of achieving these. He called this the co-operative principle. He proposed four maxims or rules for a successful conversation: Maxim of Quantity - a contribution to the conversation says neither too much or too little than needed. Maxim of Relation - what you say must be relevant to the conversation Maxim of Manner - you should avoid ambiguity and obscurity, and be clear and coherent Maxim of Quality - you should be truthful, have enough evidence to support what you say and avoid anything that you suspect may be false.

When analysing a conversation, remember that one person may have powe.r 

Spoken Language Features

Accent - differing pronunciation depending on geographical region Colloquial lexis - informal words and phrases  Deitic expressions - words which require the context in order to be understood, 'look at that!' Dialect - different lexical phrases depending on geographical region Tag questions - 'd'ya know what I mean?' 'innit?', used for empathy and to check understanding. Voiced/unvoiced pauses - 'erm,' 'um' and 'err', unvoiced pauses are written as (.) and (2)

Stylistic Analysis

Stylistic analysis aims to 'deconstruct' a text to uncover its important and individually-effective parts to understand how they form an effective whole. It will avoid stating the obvious, and focus solely on the more important and subtle language choices of the writer or speaker. This kind of analysis is useful to consider whilst concerning the effects of the key stylistic choices, the methods used and purposes intended.  It includes elements such as genre, context, audience, purpose, methods and effects of language used. 

Example: The genre of a copy of the Times newspaper will be constrained somewhat by the writer's choices of style because the genre convention require the use of, for instance, headings and sub-headings, photographs and columns.  The context of the reader is important to newspaper writing because this genre is often read in less than ideal circumstances where concentration is difficult or not desired, such as in a train station or busy office. The audience are likely to be in an upper income bracket and be well-educated and this will affect choices of lexis, grammar and semantics. The purpose of the article is likely to be a combination of informing, persuading and entertaining.  Professional writers, such as journalists often take a lot of care over their lexical, grammatical and other stylistic choices, by reading their own work and approaching it as their intended audience would. 

Tenor

The tenor of a discourse is relating to what kind of relationship is being developed throughout the discourse. It can be useful to characterise tenor where the speaker may be trying to create sense of friendliness, objectivity or solidarity for example. The tenor is often created by the context of the discourse and the its participants relate to each other. Questions to ask may include; Is the writer sincere? Is the discourse reflecting the status of the participants? (power relationships between them may be symmetrical or asymmetrical)

Tone

The tone of a text refers to the ways in which the writer's attitude and mood is being expressed. They are often called prosodic or suprasegmental features of language and they relate to aspects such as rhythm, intonation, stress and pace.

How to Analyse Thoroughly

GRASP:Genre - (what type of text is it? Newspaper, letter, novel excerpt, leaflet?)Register - (how formal is the text?)Audience - (who is it aimed at? Adults, children, elderly, male, female, a social group?)Subject - (what is it about?)Purpose - (what is the text trying to do? Persuade, inform, instruct, advise?)http://docslide.us/documents/as-english-language-b-aqa-revision-booklet.html

Remember to talk about six different frameworks: Discourse structure Grammar/syntax Graphology (obvious, few marks) Phonology Lexis (obvious, few marks) Pragmatics