Russia 1917 - 1924: Conditions of Russia Before 1917

The Russian Empire

In the early 20th century, the Russian Empire was vast, covering 1/6 of the world's surface with 125 million people living there. The empire was difficult to control as 6 in every 10 people spoke a first language other than Russian. These non-Russian groups were called 'subject nationalities'.  Many of these people were opposed to being in the Russian empire and its policy of 'Russification'. This required those non-nationals to speak Russian, wear Russian clothes and take part in Russian customs.  Russia was also an autocracy; the Tsar believed God had given him the divine right to rule. The only parliament , the Duma, had little say in the running of the country. Further, roughly 70% of the population were members of the Orthodox Church. The church taught people to support the Tsar as God's representative on earth.  The Russian people were extremely suppressed at this time: unions of workers and strikes were banned, newspapers and books were censored and the government had little power. The Tsar suppressed people further through his secret police (Okhrana). They found opponents of the regime and had imprisoned and exiled to Siberia.  The famous Russian author, Leo Tolstoy, details Russian discontent in 1902:  "A third of the whole of Russia is under police surveillance. The army of the police, both regular and secret, is continually growing in numbers. The prisons are overcrowded with thousands of convicts and political prisoners. Censorship has reached its highest level since the 1840s. In all cities... soldiers are... equipped with live ammunition to be sent out against the people."

Leo Tolstoy by I.S.Kazakov (1900, Odessa)

Tsar Nicholas II

Nikolai Aleksandrovich Romanov was born in 1868 near the town of St Petersburg. He succeeded his father in 1894 to be crowned the Tsar of Russia. Nicholas and his wife Alexandra of Hesse-Darmstadt married the same year and had four children. The most famous being their son, Alexis, who suffered from a genetic disorder known as haemophilia.  To Nicholas the Tsar was to act as an autocrat. This is a ruler who holds absolute power. In a time of colonial expansion, Nicholas did not want Russia to miss out on the potential for the expansion of land so he attempted to expand into Manchuria. This attempted takeover promoted war with the Japanese in 1904. Unfortunately for the Tsar, Japan beat Russia and this led to strikes and riots across the country. The army shot at a crowd in St Petersburg during 'Bloody Sunday' protests in January 1905. Opposition developed against the Tsar to introduce radical reforms. This came in the granting of a constitution and establishment of a parliament known as the Duma. Nicholas attempted to make limited concessions; voting laws were altered to prevent the election of radicals and the secret police continued to deal with opposition.  The beginning of the First World War temporarily strengthened the monarchy, however, in mid-1915 the Tsar decided to take direct military command of the Russian army and disaster ensued. Consistent military failure became associated with his commanding.  While Nicholas was away, his wife, Alexandra, took an active role in government. Russia suffered heavy loses in the war, severe food shortages occurred throughout the country and the economy was experiencing high inflation. In February 1917, widespread demonstrations occurred in the capital Petrograd and Nicholas had no other alternative but to abdicate (when a monarch renounces their throne) from his role as Tsar.  Summary:  Born in 1868 and became the Tsar in 1894 Married to Alexandra of Hesse in the same year Held that the Tsar should be autocratic Determined not to allow economic and social reform Lost a war to the Japanese 1904-1905 Lost the trust of the people Abdicated in 1917  Killed during the Russian Civil War by the Bolsheviks (1918) Nicholas was “even more poorly prepared than his father for the burdens of kingship.  Nicholas had no knowledge of the world of men, of politics or government to help him make the weighty decisions that in the Russian system the Tsar alone must make.” (H. Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, 1983)

The Romanov Family

Photo of the Romanov family - Nicholas II, his wife Alexandra, son Alexis and four daughters - Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia (1914)

Economic Problems

Economic Problems:  85% of the population was located in the countryside Russian agriculture was extremely poor In most villages, land was divided into large fields These fields were split into strips for each family This system encouraged subsistence farming with primitive tools This system led to low food production and frequent famines Industrialisation:  Russia was rich in minerals and oil, however, the period of industrialisation did not occur until the end of the 19th century The industrial aspects of society struggled to develop because of undeveloped road and rail systems and no effective banking system Russia experienced a massive growth in output by the First World War The Tsar's minister for Finance, Count Sergei Witte wanted to modernise the Russian economy Invited foreign experts and workers to advise on industry and development techniques Rapid industrialisation led to poor living and working conditions for workers

Social Problems

Russian society was divided along class lines. The majority of the population were poor peasants. It was a very hierarchical society. The aristocracy:  About 1.5% of the population with 25% of the land Middle classes:  1914 - the development of industry led to the growth of the middle class Bankers, merchants and factory owners Many made huge amounts of profit from government contracts and loans The peasants:  Roughly 4/5 people were peasants in 1917 Peasants lived in poor conditions and diets of bread, porridge and soup Poor harvests led to mass starvation and disease The average life expectancy in this class was 40 years Town workers:  This was the most rapid growing class in the early 20th century Large numbers of peasants flocked to towns and cities in order to obtain work in industry Conditions were overcrowded and poor Workers often slept in dormitories near factories; working long hours and receiving little pay Workers were banned from forming trade unions Protests were often crushed brutally "They receive terrible wages, and generally live in overcrowded conditions. The normal working day is eleven and a half hours not including meal times. But manufacturers have received permission to use overtime. This makes the average day longer than that allowed by the law - fifteen or sixteen hours." - (Father Gapon, The Story of My Life, 1905) 

Opposition to the Tsar - Political Groups

The Kadets (Constitutional Democracts): They were a liberal group in the Duma. These were middle-class reformers who desired greater democracy in Russia. They used Britain as an example of monarchy with a powerful parliament.  The Kadets were led by Pavel Milyukov. They wanted the Tsar to be answerable and accountable to a democratic parliament.   Social Revolutionaries (SRs):  SRs were a radical movement led by Viktor Chernov. This group had mass support from the peasantry and were the most popular party in Russia. Most of the members believed in revolution, while some argued for the assassination of government members.  They were united in their goal to redistribute land in order to give everyone a fair share.   Social Democrats: Communists at this time were termed Social Democrats; they followed Karl Marx's historical interpretation of politics. In Marxist theory, a class struggle would come about where the middle classes taking control from the monarchy and aristocracy. Eventually, a revolution would occur where the workers (proletariat) would overthrow those in the middle class. The Communist Party would rule for a while until all selfish desires passed away and there would no longer be a requirement for government. People would live together peaceful in a Communist society.  In 1903, the Social Democrats split in to two parties; the Mensheviks led by Martov and Bolsheviks led by Lenin. There leaders were from the middle classes but the supporters were mainly the industrial working class.  The Mensheviks represented the majority of Socialists. Their main aim was to make life better for the millions of working class people. They were not opposed to the idea of revolution, they believed that conditions has to improve before it could be brought about.  The Bolsheviks were part of the minority. Lenin believed that improving conditions for people would decrease the numbers of people who would support a revolution. Therefore, revolution was a central aim of the Bolsheviks. Socialism would come first and then communism.  "The goal of socialism is communism." - Bolshevik leader, Vladimir Lenin

Opposition to the Tsar

1905 Revolution:  On 22 January 1905, a peaceful demonstration of 200,000 people at the Winter Palace in St Petersburg led by the government spy, Father Gapon (priest), occurred. The industrial workers and their families were complaining about their present conditions: Long working hours with low pay and horrible living conditions Protesters wanted a parliament  Questioned their loyalty to the Tsar Nicholas II left the Winter Palace in fear of the demonstrators. The Cossacks attacked the crowds in order to assert the authority of the Tsar. An estimated 130 were killed and 3,000 wounded. This tragedy resulted in unrest across Russia:  Sailors on the Potemkin carried out a mutiny in June 1905 Strikes occurred in industrial towns October rail strike was a national strike in the city of Moscow Food was not reaching industrial towns Demanded an overhaul of the system of government Workers and soldiers gathered together to from Soviets, these were committees formed to represent them Nicholas survived, barely, by publishing the 'October Manifesto'.   'October Manifesto' 1905: The Tsar promised a number of reforms to the Russian people in the form of a manifesto: The establishment of a parliament (Duma) Nicholas would make no laws without the approval of the Duma Liberals approved this development and many strikers went back to their jobs as they felt like they were getting their desired reforms. Some peasants continued to revolt, believing a Duma was not enough. When troops came back from the war against Japan the Tsar felt more secure. The Octobrists supported the Tsar in his manifesto. Further, taxes were lowered on the poor in society and Peter Stolypin was introduced as the Prime Minister.    Octobrists: Octobrists were a conservative group who supported the October Manifesto. In 1913, their leader was Alexander Guchkov. The Octobrists were by far the most loyal supporters of the Tsar. However, they had gone too far in attempting to remove the Duma's rights that were highlighted in 1905 after the revolution. If the governing body did not become more respected in Russia, the Octobrists warned the Tsar that catastrophe would occur.   Stolypin and the Dumas:  Peter Stolypin was appointed the Prime Minister by the Tsar after the 1905 Revolution. He introduced reforms in both agriculture and education. Further, opposition to the Tsar at this time was dealt with severely. During Stolypin's role, over 3,000 people were executed in the gallows. They were nicknamed 'Stoylpin's necktie'.  Nicholas II also made sure at this time that the Duma had little power to exercise. When the first Duma was elected, Nicholas declared he had the power to dissolve it when he liked. Four different Dumas were formed from 1906-1914, but Nicholas refused to give them power and continued to rule as an autocrat.

Politics After War

Decline of the Romanovs:  Russia was in such a bad state that the Council of the United Nobility called on the Tsar to step down from his position in 1916.  Many junior officers in the war were suffering heavy losses and these officers were the future of the aristocracy. Moreover, conscription of 13 million peasants threatened the nature of Russian society; aristocrats lost many people who would work on their estates. Further, the aristocracy was appalled by the influence Rasputin had in the government. When Nicholas II left Petrograd to lead the army, Nicholas II's wife, Alexandra, was left to take charge of the country. People became suspicious of Alexandra as she was German.   Rasputin:  Many supporters of the Tsar were alarmed by one figure close to the royal family - Gregory Yefimovich, also known as Rasputin.  The Tsar's son Alexis suffered from a genetic disorder known as haemophilia. Rasputin, through the use of hypnosis, appeared to be able to control the disease. The Tsarina (Tsar's wife) hailed him as a miracle worker. Soon after, Rasputin offered the royal couple advice on the best way to run the country. Opponents of the Tsar pointed to Rasputin as a symbol of the weakness of the Tsar. Rumours also surfaced of an affair between Alexandra and Rasputin. Rasputin was deemed a dangerous figured and was murdered by a number of leading aristocrats in December 1916.   Abdication:  Russia had a huge army and many were happy to fight for their country. For the most part, the peasant class felt they were fighting in the war to defend their country against the Germans. Early in the war the Russians suffered defeats at Tannenburg and the Masurian Lakes which led them to give up Poland. They were badly led and treated poorly by their superiors. Industries from home failed to supply troops with rifles, ammunition and shells.  In September 1915, Tsar Nicholas II made the critical decision to take control of the armed forces himself. The problem was Nicholas was an incapable commander. Further, the troops themselves continued to lose and make mistakes. The Russians continued to experience defeat in the war throughout 1916 and 1917. Growing discontent within the army led to many soldiers turning their support towards the revolutionary Bolshevik Party. Thirteen million soldiers had been mobilised for Russia in the First World War, 9.15 million of these men died or were wounded. The war effort and poor governance of Russia led to economic chaos. By February 1917, people were starving across towns and cities in the country. The March Revolution began with women striking in demand for bread, this resulted in rioting. The Tsarina called in troops to help with the situation, but they mutinied and began to help the rioters. The workers and soldiers came together to establish the Petrograd Soviet and coordinate revolution. The Tsar came under great pressure and was clueless about what to do. The Duma, realising that the government was falling apart, established a provisional government and forced the Tsar to abdicate on 15 March 1917.   Orlando Figes: “Collapse is certainly the right word to use. For the Romanov regime fell under the weight of its own internal contradictions. It was not overthrown”.