Why the South lost / Why the North won

Military leadership/ strategy
1. Union
  1. Grant
    1. Grant's victories in key battles convinced Lincoln to make him the head of the Union Army
    2. Grant was skilful in outmanoeuvring his enemy, for example in Vicksburg 1862 he aimed to defeat Johnston's army while it was disunited, aware that he would otherwise be outnumbered. He won several battles in 3 weeks and defeated Confederate forces.
  2. Sherman
    1. Sherman's marches in 1864-65 greatly weakened the confederacy. They left 60-mile wide destruction and damaged the infrastructure, morale and economy of the South. Damage cost $100 million in Georgia alone. It also defeated the purpose of the Confederate army, as it proved they could not protect their citizens.
    2. Sherman did not aim to kill, as he ordered the evacuation of Atlanta before destroying it. He ordered his officers to destroy all store-houses, factories and warehouses that could be used for military purposes including the Western and Atlantic railroad. This would both aid Grant's campaign by weakening confederate communications and psychologically damage the Confederacy
    3. The marches were also tactically significant as he maximised damage and minimised resistance by marking his army in 2 parallel wings around 20 miles wide. Scattered defenders were unable to predict their movements and concentrate forces against them.
    4. The marches also dealt a fatal blow to slavery in the South as Sherman liberated tens of thousants of slaves in fulfilment of the Emancipation Proclamation.
  3. McClellan
    1. The Battle of Antietam was the final straw for Lincoln, who dismissed him. After his victory he failed to persue the weak army and allowed them to retreat to Virginia.
  4. By emancipating the slaves the Union was able to incorporate many free blacks into the army to boost numbers
2. Confederate
  1. Lee
    1. Lee is considered one of the most talented generals of the civil war. In the Battle of Chancellorsville in 1863 he tactically split his army and won a decisive victory.
    2. He suffered decline during the closing years of the war. The Battle of Gettysburg became a disaster when he ordered a full frontal assault, known as Pickett's Charge, and crucially did not capture the strategic hill, Little Round Top. Davis refused to accept his resignation and so the Confederate army suffered low morale and lack of confidence.
    3. In the Battle of Antietam 1862 Lee divided his army, allowing himself to be disadvantaged and vulnerable to attack by McClellan. Arguably McClellan's success was due to him mysteriously coming to possess Lee's operational orders, but this overall badly handled by Lee. Despit this, Lee's army united again and became 3 separate battles, and Lee, while not victorious, lost fewer men.
    4. There has been criticism of Lee for concentrating on Virginia and losing the West so early in the war.
  2. Jackson
    1. Jackson and his brigade fought so well in the First Battle of Manassas that he was nicknamed 'Stonewall'.
  3. The Western Theatre
    1. The commanders in the west were very poor, and the Union was able to break through Johnston's defences at the border due to poor strategizing and subsequent retreat. Beauregard was not realistic in planning, Bragg was argumentative, Hood was a disaster, Johnston often retreated from battles. However, this was not totally due to their incompetence; they were considerably under-resourced, especially being so far from the capital when supply lines are weak.
Economy
1. Union
  1. Economy actually improved
    1. Higher tariffs provided the governemnt with extra money and protected industry ftom foreign competition
    2. The government had very little central role in the railway and other economic maters.
    3. The Norther economy had abundant raw materials, ready capital and technological expertise, which enabled armies to be well equipped and civilians not to fall short of basic commodities.
    4. Production gains were significant in war industries suh as munitions, canned goods, and shipbuilding, and railways made great profits. For the first time their full carrying capacity was utilised.
    5. The increased money supply meant that manufacturers could pay off their debs and secure loans for investment and expansion..
    6. The shortage of labour encouraged the production of new machinery and expanded the horizons of businesses, who now envisioned producing mass commodities, e.g. boots, bullets, etc. Some men made millions , and huge profits encouraged further expanion.
    7. Farmers also benefitted from increased demand from the army and abroad, from countries such as Britain. Exports of wheat, corn, pork and beef doubled. This was die to an increased use of more advanced machinery, as well as new land cultivations.
    8. By 1861 the Union had established a Treasury, gold reserves and sources of revenue, and Secretary Chase raised loans and issued bonds. 1 million Northerners owned shares in national debt during the war.
  2. Problems
    1. Some industries suffered and the fact that so much of the labour force was conscripted may have slowed down industrial and agricultural growth
    2. The estimated effect of loss in immigration amd military death reduced the population by 5.6% what it would have been without the war.
    3. Mass production was a trend under way before the war
2. Confederacy
  1. Efforts
    1. The confederacy had few gold reserves and the Union blockade made it difficult to sell cotton and raise money from tarrifs. Taxes on income, profits and properties levied in 1863 were unpopular, difficult to administer and failed to bring in sufficient revenue. State governments which raised the money were often reluctant to send it to Richmond.
      1. Rather than tax their citizens, states often borrowd money or printed it, worsening the inflationary pressures.
      2. Only 8% of the Confederacy's income was derived from taxes. Congress raised $15 millions in bonds and stock certificates. Initially there were may uyers, but as the war went on and became less successful for the Confederacy people were less willing to invest in a lost cuase.
      3. 1860 green tea = 60c, 1830 green tea = $8
    2. The Ordinance Bureau was set up by government to aquire war materials and provided enough war materials and factories to provide the army with basic tools of war. The War Department assumed control over the railways and draft exemptions were issued to ensure railmway companies had skilled workers.
    3. Steps were taken to regulate foreign trade. From 1863 all blockade runners had to carry, as a third of their cargo, cotton out and war supplies in. This had a 75% success rate thriughout the war and the South were able to export goods.
    4. In 1863 Congress passed the Impressment Act , allowing the seizure of goods to support the front lines, and the Taxation-in-Kind Act, allowing governemnt to collect 10% of farmer's produce. This successfully helped rebel armies durinf the last 2 years of the war.
    5. Farmers shifted from cotton to food production
  2. Failure
    1. The railway system slowly collapsed, so food and supplies were left t deports with no transportation.
    2. The cotton embargo backfired . The South failed to export their most valuable commodity when the blockade was at its weakest. Money from the proceeds could have been to buy vital war supplies . Instead, Southern agents in Europe were handicapped by a lack of funds nd often outbid by Union competitors.
    3. Many blockade runners were more concerned with moneyand brought luxury goods instead of essentials.
    4. By 1865 the Confederate army was near collapse. Machinery was wearing out and could not be replaced. Sources of raw materials were lost as Union forces took over large areas of the South.
Infrastructure
1. Population
  1. The Confederacy made up only 27% of the total population of America, and excluding the black population this drops to 15.5%. The Union was 2..5% the South's population.
  2. Conscription was expanded to include all able-bodied men aged 17-50, and in 1863 the army reached its max strength of 260,000 men.
  3. While the Union conscripted approximately half of its population, the Confederacy enlisted 4/5ths, excluding from enlistment slave owners with over 20 slaves and a substantial number of the military who had to guard the hinterland and avoid slave uprisings.
2. Technology/Industry
  1. The North's industrial base was approximately 10X greater than the South's.
    1. Technological advancements, such as new weapons, meant it was it was important to have an effective supply of war materials such as coal, iron, etc.
  2. Though the South's main product remained cotton, only 5% of it was manufactured in Southern textile mills, and the industrial base of New York and Pennsylvania alone was greater than all the South's put together.
  3. The North was aided by superior technological innovations. Grant in Virginia and Sherman in Georgia, for example, could keep daily telegraphic contact.
  4. The Union had 9X the Confederacy's industrial production.
3. Transport
  1. The North had 3X the rail mileage of the South and was higher quality. Railways were vital for troop and supply movements to the battle front, and strategically the South's railway system was most developed along the Atlantic coast and border states, and was therefore highly vulnerable.
  2. A trans-continental railway from Omaha to San Francisco was built
Morale
1. Union
  1. Lincoln was an excellent public speaker and was often able to goon the support of key allies and soldiers when necessary.
  2. Lincoln came to symbolise the Northern war effort and voters endorsed him in his reelection.
2. Confederacy
  1. Both armies suffered desertions, but there were particularly high numbers in Davis' army. He launched three amnesties in hopes of getting soldiers back to the front but these were unsuccessful. By late 1864 50% of the Confederate army, were absent without leave. By late 1864 there were more slaves working on the cotton plantations than there were white soldiers fighting in the Confederate army.
  2. The South had 4% greater casualty figures during Grant's campaign, despite having fewer actual losses. Twice as many died of wounds poorly treated because of primitive medical conditions than died on the battlefield.
  3. Military events are important to sustain national morale. Lee and his army embodied the Confederacy in the minds of most Southerners. Few contemplated serious resistance after Lee surrendered.
    1. The war developed into a war of attrition - the slow wearing down of the resources and resistance of the opponent - but this does not fully explain why the South did not make earlier gains.
  4. Shortages of basic commodities, inflation and impressment had a demoralising effect on all parts of the South. Some areas were also devistated by Union troops during Sherman's marches.
Political leadership
1. Lincoln
  1. Lincon was more willing to trust his commanders, but he was also decisive in dismissing and replacing them when they were unsuccessful. Because of this he was able to discover the talents of Grant and Sherman and avoid repeating military disasters.
  2. Lincoln was successful in keeping the border states in the Union and did not alienate opinion over slavery.
  3. Lincoln was more eloquent in expressing his aims and was a successful communicator. He was therefore also skilled at delegating, keeping political factions working together and enduring and listening to constructive criticism.
    1. Lincoln's most important role was shaping national strategy. He was able to articulate the Unions aims and was a consummate politician, keeping in touch with public opinion .
  4. He had little admiistrative experience and was often accused of incompetence in choosing military commanders, such as McClellan , McDowell, Pope, etc.
  5. Arguably he should not be praised for foreign policy, handled by Seward, financila matters, handled by Chase, or economic matters, handled by Congress.
    1. There was no need for him to participate in these things
  6. Democrats accused him of acting tyranically when he suspended Habeas Corpus, letting anyone be imprisoned by militry authority for treason or resisting conscription. However this was employed unfairly with some over-eager and others settling scores. Over 40,000 people were subject to arbitrary arrest.
  7. Generally he selected able men and delegated well, giving those who were successful freedom.
  8. His management of cabinet meant he did not alienate any of his politicians. He was able to 'dominate his subordiates without the appearance of domination'.
  9. He worked well with congress, taking a moderate stance but being willing to listen to all shades of opinion. In 18611 Northern Democrats like Douglas called on all Northerners to rally around Lincoln.
  10. He was aware of the importance of public opinion in response to war measures and successes. He had an open and aware sense of timing when helped him, especially when issuing the Empanipation Proclamation.
  11. He did not shirk responsibility as commander in chief. He believed waging war was an executive function, and so believed his powers should be used to the best effect. He was able to stretch his authority when necessary , for example, when he called for the blockade and ordered a military spending of $2 million without Congressional approval.
  12. He was well liked and made a good impression on those he met. People often commented on his humour, honesty, simplicity, resilience and diligence.
2. Davis
  1. Davis was unable to establish good working relatioships with many of his collegues. He argued with military commanders and leading politicians and unlike Lincoln found it hard to work with men who did not give him full approval. The high turnover in cabinet is proof of is inability to cement firm relationships. In the course of the war he appointed 4 secretaries of state and 6 secretaries of war.
    1. Davis had a poor relationship with his Vice President Alexander Stephens, who called him 'weak, timid, petulant, peevish, obstinate', and blamed him for everything that went wrong in the war.
  2. Meddled in the affairs of subordinates. He found it hard to prioritise delegate and so got bogged down in unimportant details. He also interfered disasterously, for example when he replaced Johnston with Hood.
  3. He was indecisive and lengthy cabinet meetings often came to no conclusion. He has been accused of being despotic (autocratic) and for using his powers too sparingly, as well as failing to communicate effectively.
  4. He was too conserative during a time of revolutionary change
  5. He came to the presidency with full experience in politics and had a realistic understanding of the South's position.
    1. The fact that he appointed Lee proves his good sense when it came to military decisions - although he failed to continue this.
  6. He was able to push through tough but necessary measures even when they were contrary to his belief in state rights, such as the Conscription Act 1862, imposing martial law and dupported the impressment of supplies needed by Southern troops.
  7. He became more of a public figure when necessary,, touring the South to restore faith near the end
3. It has been argued by David Potter that if their roles had been reversed, Davis might have won the war.
  1. Certainly made mistakes, but he had a more difficult job to do and had to work.
  2. No one could doubt his dedication or work, and he arguably did as much as he could in the position he was in.
Internal opposition
1. Union
  1. Republicans viewed the Democrats as adversaries, and gave their Democratic oppnents the name Copperheads. Democrat dissent reached its height in early 1863 when Union military failures fostered a sense of defeatism. Clement Vallandigham , campaigning to be the governor of Ohio, denounced the war and called upon soldiers to desert.
  2. Clement Vallandigham, campaigning to be the governor of Ohio, denounced the war and called upon soldiers to desert. He was arrested in the middle of the night, tried by military tribunal and was sentenced to imprisonment for the rest of the war. This led to protest from Democrats and even some Republicans. Lincoln still cound not condone his actions , but anxious not to make him a martr, he banished him to the Confederacy. His peace pplatform was undermined when the war turned in the Union's favour.
  3. The most seriois internal violence followed the enforcement of the Conscription Act. The New York Draft Riots saw conscripted citizens attacked recruiting stations, mobbed the streets and rampaged against blacks, blaming them for the war. Economic, ethnc, racial and religious factprs all played a part in causing the riots. Lincoln acted uickly, sending 20,000 troops to restore order. At least 120 people , mainly rioters, died in the process.
2. Confederacy
  1. A sizable number of white Southerners - around 90,000 - fought in the Union . Western Virginia and East Tennessee were slavery was not so prominent and the economy was good showed substantial support for the Union. West Virginia actually seceded from Virginia and became a Union state.
  2. Many groups within the South became disadvantaged as he war progressed. 2/3 of the Coinfederate's white population were non-slaveholders who may have come to resent risking their lives and property to defend slavery, especially those who had opposed secession. Others became alienated during the hardships of the war.
  3. Conscription was incredibly unpopular and bands of dradt evaders and deserters dominated some areas of the South. Conscription also fuelled class conflict, as many ordinary farmers resented that rich Southerners could avoid the draft by hiring substitutes or exempting temselves. Significant numbers became dissatisfied with the planter-led government. This was not only class based; dissatisfaction often came from upper South states where there had been less support for secession.
Foreign intervention
1. It seemed within Britain's interests for the US to break up, but it remained neutral
2. When the South introduced the embargo on cottin, the plan to lure Britain failed as European storehouses were full of cotton. The embargo angered Europeans, who were insulted that the South believed they would go to war over cotton. There was talk about lbreaking the blockade never followed by action, but agents were sento to persuide sympathisers and and the Confederacy also set up a newspaper to present the rebel case.
3. Without foreign intervention the South had to rely upon limited trade and assistance in a failing economy
Slavery
1. The South did not utilise their slaves in military matters until too late, sacraficing manpower and increasing sesertions as people returned to their plantations
2. After the emanipation proclamation, thousands of ex-slaves joined the Union army. This not only increased the manpower of the Union army, but left the South with no one tending to crops and plantations, damaging the supply of goods to the front line and civilians
3. The loss of slaves defeated the purpose of the war and following the emancipation proclamation, many Southerners were willing to admit defeat.

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Why the South lost / Why the North won

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