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| Question | Answer |
| Groups of Lissamphibia (3) | (Modern Amphibians) Urodeles, Anurans, Caecilians |
| Pedicellate Teeth | suture dividing base (pedicel) from tip (crown) |
| Anuran characteristics (4) | Absence of tail, jumpers, tympanum usually present (hearing), external fertilization |
| Anuran Skull traits | open, large jaws, flattened, reduced palate |
| Anuran Appendicular skeleton | robust pectoral girdle, radius/ulna fused, tibia/fibula and ankle bones fused, lengthened hind limb |
| Urodele characteristics (6) | Paired limbs, long tail, no tympanum, suction feeding in water, projectile tongue on land, external or internal fertilization |
| Urodele skeleton | flattened skull with large orbits, 10-60 vertebrae, poor ossification, reduction/loss of bone |
| Caecilian characteristics (6) | No limbs or girdles, skull solid and compact, restricted to tropical habitats, internal fertilization, 60-285 trunk vertebrae, tail is short or absent |
| competing theories on lissamphibia origins (3) | Monophyletic origin within lepospondyls, Monophyletic origin within temnospondyls, Polyphyletic origin with caecilians from lepospondyls and anurans/urodeles from temnospondyls |
| Early amniote characteristics | small, ossified skeleton, jaws/teeth/neck improved for predation |
| amniote jaw musculature modification | strong force when open wide and now when nearly closed |
| amniote key features (2) | Temporal fenestrae and cleidoic egg |
| Types of fenestrae arrangements (4) | anapsid (0), synapsid (1 lower), diapsid (2), euryapsid (1 upper) |
| extraembryonic membranes (3) | chorion - embryo and yolk sac, amnion - water, allantois - waste |
| atlas and axis vertebrae functions | maintain strength while increasing mobility, skull-atlas = nodding and tilting, atlantoaxial = twisting |
| strategy in vertebral column to overcome gravity in amniotes | abdominal muscles for archer's bow shape and neck ligaments form violin bow |
| Amniote changes to limb posture | limbs moved under the body, rotated inward |
| Classes of Synapsid Amniotes (4) | Pelycosaurs, Therapsids, Cynodonts, Mammals |
| Pelycosaur traits | sprawling posture, relatively posterior orbit, single temporal opening in cheek, moderate size, some with broad sail of neural spines |
| Therapsid traits | enlarged temporal fenestrae, reduction of palatal teeth |
| Groups of therapsids (3) | dinocephalian, dicynodont, gargonopsians |
| significant cynodont modifications | jaw muscles allowing chewing, two occipital condyles, semi erect position of hind limbs, nasal turbinates, secondary palate |
| Characteristics of mammals | extended care of young, hair, milk from mammary glands, increased brain/body size ratio |
| skeletal characteristics of mammals | jaw joint between dentary and squamosal, previous hinge bones contribute to ear, specialized teeth |
| Groups of Living Mammals (3) | Monotremes, Marsupials, Placentals |
| Monotreme characteristics | no nipples, no external ears, embryoes in leathery eggs, no teeth in adults |
| Major groups of Placentals (3) | Afrotheria (Africa), Xenarthia (South America), Barcoeutheria (North America and Eurasia) |
| possible drivers of adaptive radiation of mammals (4) | extended parental care, greater intelligence, versatile feeding mechanisms, locomotory adaptation |
| Anapsids early and recent | mesosaurs, pareiasuars, testudines, captorhinids |
| testudine characteristics | hard shell, solid toothless skull, dorsal carapace and ventral plastron made of fused bony elements covered by keratin scutes |
| diapsid gliders | wings of horizontal ribs |
| squamate skull adaptations (2) | loss of temporal bars, cranial kinesis |
| types of crawling locomotion (4) | lateral undulation, concertina movement, sidewinding, rectilinear movement |
| Ichtyosaur characterstics (5) | fish/dolphin-like, fast predator, good vision, large (15m), living young |
| major trend of archosauromorphs | bipedal locomotion |
| Saurischians | girrdle bones radiate outwards from centre (sauropodomorph and theropods) |
| Ornithischian | ischium and part of pubis are parallel, projecting backward |
| skeletal adaptations of giant dinosaurs (3) | shortened pillar like limbs, reduction/shorting of wrist/fingers and ankles/toes, elongated necks |
| modifications allowing human bipedalism | straight knee joint, longer leg bones, short wide pelvis, sideways hip joint, feet/toes, short lower back, head held vertically |
| ape characteristics (3) | no tail, large braincase, mobile shoulder joint |
| new world vs old world monkeys | new world - prehensile tail and flat nose |
| promisian groups (4) | lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, galagos |
| Primate characteristics (4) | agile in trees, large brain, binocular vision, enhanced parental care |
| hypotheses for bird flight evolution (3) | gliding ability, bipedal ancestors, aerial ambush attacks |
| distinguishing characteristic of birds | feathers |
| main groups of ornithischians (4) | thyreophorans, ornithopods, pachycephalosaurs, ceratopsians |
| general trends from primate to humans | increased brain size, loss of tooth gaps, bipedalism, tools, gracile skeleton, prominent chin, culture |
| characteristics of Neanderthalis | compact and robus, advanced culture |
| reason for small gills in mountain salamanders | cold water has more dissolved oxygen, less surface area needed |
| muscles controlling internal gill ventilation in tadpoles | interhyoideus (up), orbithyoideus, ceratohyal cartilage |
| requirements for cutaneous respiration | low keratinzation (moisture needed), anastomosing or folds/papillae for surface area |
| buccal pump in frogs | in through nares, air from lungs expelled, air from mouth into lungs, held as air in mouth expelled |
| alveoli | blind ended respiratory sac |
| air flow in bird lung | dorsobronchus→parabronchus (in lungs) → ventrobronchus (base of lungs) |
| aspiration pump in mammals | diaphragm anterior to liver and rib cage |
| bird vs. mammal ventilation | birds have unidirectional air flow and cross-current exchange system |
| anuran heart identifying characterstic | ventricle undivided (unique among air breathers) |
| characteristic of lungless salamander hearts | interarterial septum reduced/absent (all respiration through skin) |
| turtle/squamate heart | divided atrium and ventricle, ventricle has 3 interconnected compartments for bypass while diving |
| adaptation in mammalian heart | absence of cardiac shunt, allows different arterial pressure |
| post cava | new vessel in amphibians, drains most of blood from kidneys |
| jugular | anterior cardinal vein |
| amniote venous system | renal portal absent, anterior through precava, posterior through postcava, hepatic portal present |
| embryo respiration in sauropsids and basal mammals | through chorioallantoic membrane and permeable shell membrane/shell pores |
| embryo respiration in eutherian mammals | placenta rich in blood vessels |
| types of tooth attachment | acrodont (outer rim), pleurodont (innerside), thecodont (bone sockets) |
| Polyphyodont | teeth replace continuously throughout life |
| human tooth formula | 2-1-2-3 |
| regions of stomach (4) | esophageal, cardiac, fundus, pyloric |
| strategies for increased intestinal surface area (3) | caeca, spiral valve, foldings |
| head kidney | degenerated pronephros limited to hemopoietic/lymphoid and endocrine functions |
| functional unit of kidney | nephron |
| hindgut | location of urine reflux in amphibians, birds and reptiles to aid in recovery of electrolytes |
| sources of gonad development | sex cords from mesomere genital ridges, gametes from primordial germ cells |
| stroma | matrix of connective tissue containing gonads |
| Mullarian duct | paramesonephric duct/oviduct |
| reason for fish urinary bladder | intraspecific communication and storage of sex pheromones |
| cells of the nervous system | neurons, glia (oligodendrocytes, schwann cells, astrocytes, microglia) |
| Spinal Cord | Collection of neurons and axons tracts involved in transmission of information over long distances and establishment of simple/local reflexes |
| Spinal Nerves | dorsal root receive afferent fibres from sensory neurons with somata located in dorsal root ganglion, ventral root contains motor neuron efferent fibres on their way to their target |
| autonomic nervous system | division of PNS controlling visceral activity |
| Enteric Nervous System | involved in controlling activity of muscles of alimentary canal (move food through digestive tract) |
| evagination of pallium | expansion of tissue around ventricle |
| eversion of pallium | dorsal portion bulges towards outside, ventricle opens to outside (disappears) (teleosts) |
| cortex | laminated nervous tissue of cerebral hemisphere (forebrain) |
| Triune Brain Hypothesis of cortex evolution | No additions of whole cortical regions, just modifications of what already existed |
| sensory receptor | transforms stimulus to electrical impulse, composed of dendrites associated with amplifying structures |
| Types of Chemoreception (3) | olfaction, vomeronasal, gustation |
| ganglion cell | output neuron of the eyes |
| focusing in water and air | water - change lens position, flat cornea. air - change lens shape round cornea |
| adaptations to dim light | large eyes, few cones/tightly packed rods, tapetum lucidum |
| types of mechanoreceptors | meissmer and pacinian corpuscles, hair movement, free sensory, proprioception, lateral line, ear |
| macula | sensory cell patches similar to neuromasts that register head position (gravity and linear acceleration) |
| crista | base of semicircular canals, register angular acceleration |
| auditory macula | basilar papilla in most, organ of corti in mammals |
| traits unique to mammal ear (5) | small oval window, lever system of ear bones, organ of corti, long cochlea, external ear |
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