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| Question | Answer |
| Replication of Loftus' yield and stop sign study - Bekerian and Bowers 1983 | Did exactly the same as Loftus, but pairs of slides were in chronological order in recognition phase. Recall of misled participants in this experiment were almost exactly the same as the non-misled. This suggests memory is not deleted, as looking at slides in correct sequence provides enough cues to reactivate the old memory in spite of misinformation. It remains unclear whether it is destroyed or merely obscured. This research suggests obscured. |
| Geiselman 1985 | The cognitive interview |
| Testing cognitive interview - Geiselman | Showed police training videos to 89 students. 48 hours later, students interviewed individually by American law enforcement officers. Interviewers either used standard police interviewing techniques or cognitive interview. Results were recorded as number of correct items recalled, and number of errors, which was subdivided into incorrect items, and confabulated items. Cognitive interview, correct 41.5, incorrect 7.3, confabulated 0.7. Police interview, correct 29.4, incorrect 6.1, confabulated 0.4. |
| Training detectives in cognitive interview - Fisher 1989 | Trained detectives in Florida to use cognitive interview, and their performance was assessed when interviewing genuine witnesses to crimes. When performance compared with pre-training levels, information gain was as much as 47%. |
| The effectiveness of cognitive interview - Bekerian and Dennett 1993 | Reviewed 27 studies of cognitive interview and found in all cases cognitive interview schedule provided more accurate information than other interview procedures. |
| Children's birthday party - Holliday 2003 | Showed two groups of children aged 4 to 5 an 9 to 10 a five minute video of a children's birthday party. Next day all children interviewed using either standard technique or cognitive interview. Findings found cognitive interview schedule resulted in more correct details being recalled about the video compared to standard interview. |
| The stop and the yield sign - Loftus 1978 | Participants divided into two groups and shown a set of slides showing events leading up to car accident. Slides were identical except for one slide. Group one saw car stopping at a yield sign, and group two saw car stopping at a stop sign. Participants were asked 20 questions. For half of each group, participants were asked 'did another car pass the red one when it was stopped at the stop sign?' and for the other half the yield sign, so half of each group were asked a misleading question. After 15 minutes, participants given 15 pairs of slides, they had to pick one of each pair as being correct. It included one pair showing stop and yield sign. 75% of participants given consistent questions chose correct slide. 41% of misled participants chose correct slide. When recognition test delayed by a week, accuracy in misled group fell to 20%. Concluded that misleading question deleted the correct information from memory and replaced it with false one. |
| Offering money for correct slide - Loftus 1980 | Accuracy in the misled group of the experiment she did for the yield and stop sign did not increase even when money was offered, supporting that the memory was replaced, leaving people genuinely thinking they'd chosen the correct one. |
| Misleading information - Elizabeth Loftus 1975 | Showed 150 participants a film of a car accident. Participants divided into two groups and asked 10 questions about what saw. Group one's questions all consistent with the film. Group two's were all the same questions except one, which asked 'how fast car going when passing the barn?' There was no barn. One week later, 10 more questions asked and final question 'did you see a barn?' only 2.7% of participants in group one gave incorrect answer. 17.3% of those in group two gave incorrect answer. Loftus said that the non-existent barn was added to original memory representation of event, so now recalled as part of event. |
| Blatantly incorrect information - Loftus 1979 | Showed participants a set of slides that showed the theft of a large, red purse from a handbag. In immediate recall test, 98% of participants remembered correct colour. Then asked to read an account of the incident supposedly written by a professor of psychology. One of the two accounts had written the wrong colour for items not important. The other, as well as these minor errors, said the purse was brown. In a second recall test, all but 2 said that the stolen purse had been red. This suggests that memory for information that is particularly noticeable is less subject to distortion, and that people can ignore new information and so original memory representation remains the same. |
| Criticism of Loftus' methods - Bekerian and Bowers 1983 | People are much more accurate if asked in a logical order and if they are not forced to answer if they are not sure. |
| Shoplifting scenarios - List 1986 | Asked participants to rate various events in terms of their probability in a shoplifting scenario. She then compiled video showing 8 different shoplifting acts, each of which had some events classed as high probability and some low probability. Showed video to new set of people and a week later tested their recall. They were more likely to remember high probability events. If they included things that hadn't been in the video, they were more likely to be high probability events. |
| Context lacking instructions - Bransford and Johnson 1972 | Constructed passages difficult to understand without context, and then compared recall performance of group of participants supplied with contextual information and participants who hadn't. Recall significantly better in those who had received contextual information. |
| Useful distinction in memory - Koriat 2001 | How much is remembered? How accurate is the memory? |
| Children and filmed robbery - Geiselman and Padilla 1988 | Children aged between 7 and 12 less accurate than adults when it came to reporting details of a filmed robbery. |
| Difference in accuracy of memory between adults and children? - Cassel 1996 | Failed to find difference, especially when open ended recall is used. |
| Lack of appropriate schema for children - Ceci and Bruck 1993 | One reason children may be inaccurate in providing eye witness testimony is their lack of an appropriate schema for event witnessed. This makes it difficult to encode accurately. However there are times when a child's recall will be more accurate than an adult's, due to an adult's schema causing them to see things that aren't there. |
| Storage interval increases - Thomson 1988 | Children's eyewitness testimony is likely to suffer more than adult's as storage interval increases. |
| Retrieval in children - Saywitz 1987 | Children leave out more information than adults, but relevant, non-suggestive clues can help get accurate information from them. |
| Leading questions and children - Goodman and Reed 1986 | When asked leading questions, children are more likely than adults to give answer implied in question. |
| Misleading information and children - Leichtman and Ceci 1995 | Investigated misleading questioning of children. They found that if 3-6 year old children were given repeatedly misleading information in questions they eventually incorporated it into their memories. |
| Not forced choice format - Koriat and Goldsmith 1996 | Witness accuracy can be dramatically increased if not using forced choice tests like Loftus did.Witness accuracy increases if allowed to give no answer if they feel unsure. Also seems to be case that witnesses are able to produce far more accurate memories for events if they are given appropriate clues. |
| Summary of 6 main factors affecting children's eyewitness testimony - Ceci and Bruck 1993 | 1. Interviewer bias. 2. Repeated questions. 3. Stereotype induction. 4. Encouragement to imagine and visualise. 5. Peer pressure. 6. Authority figures. |
| Neisser 1978 | Criticised contemporary psychologists for concentrating just on theoretical concepts and ignoring practical issues about memory. |
| Conclusions about children and EWT - Ceci and Bruck 1993 | They're capable of producing relevant EWT, but are suggestible. If exposed to leading questions and misleading interview techniques, may not only get peripheral details wrong, but central features too.Whenever possible, interviews with children should be audio or video taped. Evidence concerning suggestibility of children is normally from lab experiments which lack validity, but ethically impossible to make children as distressed as they would be in real life. Collecting information about children's EWT must be knowledgeable about factors that can affect them. |
| Car crash and leading questions - Loftus and Palmer 1974 | 'How fast were the cars going when they...' Word used affected estimation of speed. When asked week later if there had been broken glass, those in smashed group more consistently likely to answer 'yes' which was wrong. |
| Age of the children - Kent and Yuille 1987 | Younger children of 9 more likely than older children of 14 to select someone from a photo display when asked to identify a person seen earlier, even though person's picture wasn't included in display. |
| Loftus and Ketcham 1991 | Some wrongful convictions led to the death penalty. |
| Review of wrongful arrest - Rattner 1988 | Reviewed 205 cases of wrongful conviction and found 52% of them was due to wrong eyewitness testimony. |
| Convicted suspects - Baddeley 1997 | 74% of suspects were convicted in 300 cases where eyewitness testimony only evidence against them. |
| Accuracy of testimony - Yuille and Cutshall 1986 | Interviewed 13 witnesses to a real life shooting involving owner of store and armed thief. Storeowner wounded but recovered and thief shot dead. Some witnesses had seen it close by and some had been more distant. Witnesses gave impressively accurate accounts several months later. Closest ones to the event provided most detail. Misleading questions had no effect on accuracy. Those most distressed at time of shooting were most accurate 5 months later. It appeared heightened arousal associated with anxiety caused this accuracy. |
| Reliable identification in children? - Gross and Hayne 1996 | Children as young as 5 could reliably identify a previously unknown person with whom they interacted briefly two days previously when asked to pick out of a photo line up. However, when target person absent from line up, the children performed poorly by wrongly selecting a picture. It seems younger children find it difficult to admit that they don't recognise anyone. |
| Role of anxiety in eyewitness testimony - Loftus 1979 | Participants exposed to one of two situations. First one they overheard talking about equipment failure and someone exited holding pen and greasy hands. Second one they overheard hostile and heated exchange, breaking glass, crashing chairs and a man emerged with a paper knife covered in blood. They were then given 50 photos and asked to identify the man who had come out of the laboratory. 49% accuracy for man holding pen. 33% accuracy for man holding bloodied knife. Came to be known as weapon focus phenomenon. Anxiety caused by sight of weapon narrows focus of attention and gives accurate recall of central details, yet less accuracy of peripheral details. |
| Genuine bank robberies - Christianson and Hubinette 1993 | 110 witnesses who had between them witnessed 22 bank robberies. Some witnesses were onlookers and some bank employees who had been directly threatened. Victims most accurate and remembered more details about what robbers wore, behaved like and weapon used than bystanders. Superior recall continued to be evident, even after 15 month interval. Concluded people are good at remembering highly stressful events if they occur in real life, not lab. |
| 5 ways schemas effect memory - Cohen 1993 | 1. Ignore aspects of scene not fitting currently activated schema. 2. Store central features of event without having to store exact details. 3. Make sense of what we see by filling in missing information. 4. Distort memories to fit prior expectations. 5. May use schemas to provide basis for correct guess. |
| Consequence of testimony - Foster 1994 | Shown video of bank robbery, and asked to identify robber in identity parade. One group of participants told that the video real and that their responses would influence the trial, while second group assumed it was simulation. Identification of robber more accurate in first group who believed it was real. |
| Effects of schemas on visual memory - Brewer and Treyens 1981 | 30 participants waiting in room for 35 seconds. Room designed to look like office with 61 objects. Some items compatible with office schema, some were incompatible like skull. Participants more likely to remember typical office items. 8 participants remembered the really bizarre items. Most of errors were substitutions. Other errors involved the location of the items. |
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