461617
Description
Flashcards by Anna Hollywood, updated more than 1 year ago
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Created by Anna Hollywood
almost 11 years ago
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| Question | Answer |
| What are the 4 advantages that an internal skeleton has over an external skeleton? | Provides internal framework...grows with rest of body...flexible (has many joints)...allows easy attachment of muscles |
| What does a long bone consist of? | Long shaft containing bone marrow and blood vessels - hollow so stronger and lighter than other bones |
| Why can cartilage on bone be infected? | Because they are living tissues |
| How does the human skeleton turn from cartilage (when baby) to bone? | Through ossification |
| What is ossification? | The deposition of calcium and phophorous |
| Why are older people more prone to fractures? | They lack calcium and phosphorous which can lead to osteoporosis |
| What do synovial joints (like ball and socket and hinge joints) consist of? | Synovial fluid, a synovial membrane, ligaments and cartilage |
| What are antagonistic muscles and give an example | Muscles that work in pairs. E.g. Biceps and triceps (to raise arm biceps contract and triceps relax and vice versa) |
| In a synovial joint, what does the synovial fluid do? | Acts as a cushion against shock and as a lubricant for easy movement |
| In a synovial joint, what does the synovial membrane do? | Holds in the synovial fluid |
| In a synovial joint, what does the cartilage do? | Protects the bone head |
| In a synovial joint, what does the ligaments do? | Holds the bone in place |
| What is raising and lowering the forearm an example of? | A lever, with the elbow acting as a fulcrum (pivot) - effort is multiplied giving greater force |
| Why do most animals need a blood circulatory system? | To ensure all cells receive enough food and oxygen and to remove waste products |
| What animal has a single circulatory system? | Fish |
| What does a double circulatory system require and why? | A four chambered heart (two atria (receive blood) and two ventricles (distribute blood)). This ensures high blood pressure for efficient and fast circulation |
| What does a single circulatory system require? | A two-chambered heart, one two receive blood and one to distribute it |
| What improvement did Harvey make on Galen's theories on the circulatory system? | Galen knew that the heart was a pump, but thought that the liver made blood. Harvey came up with the correct theory we know today |
| What is the definition of the cardiac cycle? | The sequence of events as blood enters and leaves the heart |
| Explain briefly the cardiac cycle | Two atria contract...two ventricles relax...blood goes in through atrio-ventricular valves...ventricles contract...force blood to lungs/body |
| What hormone increases your heart rate and why was it useful for our ancestors? | Adrenaline - kicks in 'fight or flight' descision |
| What is a pacemaker? | Keeps rhythm of heart using small electrical currents - can be made artificially |
| What is an electrocardiogram? | Shows the changes in electrical impulses in heart muscle |
| What does the sinoatrial node (SAN) do? | Makes atria contract...forces valves open and pushes blood into ventricles |
| What does the atrioventricular node (AVN) do? | It is a patch of muscle fibres...conducts impulses to special conducting muscle fibres (purkyne fibres) which carry the impulses to the tip of the ventricles |
| What happens next? | Two ventricles contract...closing AV valves...pushing blood out ventricles through open semilunar valves...into arteries...atria relax...fill with blood |
| What do they mean by a 'hole in the heart' and how can this be corrected? | A hole in wall between 2 sides of heart, through 'open heart' surgery |
| Why is a 'hole in the heart' bad? | It allows deoxygenated and oxygenated blood to mix meaning that less oxygenated blood is being carried to muscles meaning less energy |
| What's different between the circulatory system of a unborn baby and a new born baby? | An unborn baby doesn't have a double circulatory system (lungs don't work yet) so it has a hole in the heart which closes when born |
| What does a heart with damaged or weak valves have? | Low blood pressure and poor circulation (as blood will leak backwards) |
| How can a blocked coronary artery be sorted out? | Through surgery/a transplant |
| How can major heart problems be sorted out? | Transplant by donor heart or having a heart assist device which provides extra pressure (allowing heart to rest a bit and heal) |
| What are the positive things about heart surgery? | Artificial pacemakers and valves can improve lives drastically and tissue/heart donors are plentiful |
| What are the negatives of heart surgery? | Carries a lot of risk & to avoid rejection immune-suppressive drugs have to be taken |
| What does blood donation involve? | Blood from volunteer...anti-coagulant drugs...find blood group...find out if have rhesus |
| What chemicals do doctors use to prevent the blood clotting? | Heparin, warfarin, aspirin |
| What are the people with the inherited condition, haemophilia, at risk of? | Internal bleeding (even at the slightest knock) due to the blood not being able to clot |
| What is the rhesus system? | If you have the rhesus antigen you are positive, if you don't you are negative (A+ or A-) |
| What is the process of blood clotting called? | A cascade process |
| Explain the process of clotting | Blood platelets exposed to air...trigger complex sequence of chemical reactions...leads to meshwork of fibrin fibres (clot) |
| What is agglutination and when does it take place? | Blood clumping when different blood groups are incompatible. |
| Why can agglutination be life-threatening? | When red blood cells and blood plasma react |
| What can blood group A donate to? | A and AB |
| What can blood group B donate to? | B and AB |
| What can blood group AB donate to? | AB |
| What can blood group O donate to? | A, B, AB, O |
| What group/s can blood group A receive from? | A and O |
| What group/s can blood group B receive from? | B and O |
| What group/s can blood group AB receive from? | A, B, AB and O |
| What group/s can blood group O receive from? | O |
| What type of habitats are amphibians restricted to? | Moist |
| What do amphibians use to obtain oxygen and what can this lead to? | Their permeable skin which makes them more susceptible to excessive water loss (and death) |
| Why don't fish gills work in air? | Because it involves the water being forced over filaments which extract the oxygen |
| What happens when a human breathes in? | It depends on the contraction of the intercostal muscles. Ribs move up and out...diaphragm moves down...chest volume increases...pressure decreases...higher pressure outside causes air to enter lungs |
| What happens when a human breathes out? | Intercostal muscles and diaphragm relax...ribs move down and in...diaphragm curves up...chest volume decreases...increases pressure...forces air out lungs |
| Tidal air | amount of air normally breathed in and out when at rest |
| Vital capacity | maximum amount of air that can be exchanged |
| Residual air | amount of air that cannot be forced out of lungs |
| why does diffusion occur in lungs? | oxygen concentration in air is higher than in deoxygenated capillaries around the alveoli |
| how are exchange surfaces adapted for their function? | large surface area...good blood supply...permeable...moist...one cell thick |
| What are the readings on a spirometer? | A measure of different lung capacities and the rate of air flow. They can help to diagnose lung diseases. |
| asbestosis | an industrial disease resulting from breathing in asbestos fibres...causing inflammation...scarring of lung tissue...reducing gaseous exchange |
| What happens when you get lung cancer? | Lung cells grow rapidly, reducing surface area available for gaseous exchange |
| 3 symptoms of asthma | wheezing, tight chest, difficulty breathing |
| How is the respiratory system different for fish (than it is for humans)? What does this mean? | Fish - Through flow of water Humans - Air goes in and out of structure....chemical particles like tar can become trapped in air sacs |
| What happens during an asthma attack? | Lining of airways become inflamed, mucus and fluid build up and bronchioles contract, narrowing the airways |
| Name 2 reasons why physical digestion is important | -allows food pass easily through digestive system -prepares food for chemical digestion (gives it larger S.A) |
| Give 2 forms of physical digestion | Chewing the food in your mouth and squeezing food in your stomach |
| How and where is starch (carbohydrate) digested? | By carbohydrase in the mouth and small intestine...converted to maltose...then to glucose |
| How and where is protein digested? | By protease in stomach and small intestine into amino acids |
| How and where is fat digested? | By lipase in the small intestine into fatty acids and glycerol |
| How does pH vary with enzymes? | Protease enzymes like pepsin need a low pH while other protease enzymes in mouth and small intestine need a higher pH |
| What does the gall bladder store and what does it do with it? | Bile, released into small intestine to emulsify fats, increasing their S.A for efficient digestion |
| What do food molecules need to be able to do? | Pass through walls of small intestine and dissolve in blood/lymph |
| Where do the digested carbohydrates and protein molecules go? | Diffuse through walls of small intestine into blood |
| Where do the digested fat molecules go? | Not soluble so diffuse though walls of small intestine into lymph |
| 6 adaptations of small intestine | Very long...large S.A due to villi...microvilli increase S.A...thin lining...good blood supply...extensive lymphatic system of lacteals which contain lymph |
| What are excess and amino acids broken down into and where? | In the liver they form urea, which is taken in the blood to the kidneys |
| Where does blood containing waste go? | enters each kidney via renal artery |
| Where does blood not containing waste go? | Leaves by renal vein |
| What does each kidney have and how does waste leave the kidney? | An outer cortex and an inner medulla ... leaves through ureter as urine |
| What happens when the blood flows through the kidney under high pressure? | Filtration happens (under high pressure) to remove wastes...useful materials like water, glucose and salt are reabsorbed back into blood |
| What else does the kidney do? | Regulates salt and water levels in body |
| What is a nephron? | A microscopic kidney tubule where filtration occurs (each kidney has millions of these) |
| What is a glomerulus? | A network of capillaries where high pressure filtration occurs |
| What other regions does a nephron have? | region where selective reabsorption happens (glucose passes into blood)...region of salt and water regulation |
| What is a dialysis machine and what does it do? | Used when someone has a kidney failure and acts as a replacement, filtering out urea and increasing pressure for diffusion |
| What does dialysis fluid contain and why? | Sodium salts to replicate desired blood concentration and keeps sodium levels in the blood |
| How is urea made? | excess amino acids converted into ammonia...converted by liver into urea |
| What happens when you have a large drink of water? | Quantity of urine production rises and urine concentration decreases |
| What happens when you don't drink enough? | Concentration of blood increases...high concentration detected by hypothalamus...pituitary gland releases ADH...kidney tubules reabsorb more water...more concentrated urine |
| What happens when you drink too much water? | Concentration of blood decreases...low concentration detected by hypothalamus...pituitary gland doesn't release as much ADH...kidney tubules reabsorb less water...more dilute urine |
| Why must carbon dioxide be removed from the body? | Because it's toxic |
| How are carbon dioxide levels maintained? | Increase in co2 detected by receptors in carotid artery...nerve impulses tell brain...rate of breathing increases...more co2 removed |
| What are the 4 sex hormones used in the female menstrual cycle and where are they produced? | FSH (stimulates egg to develop in ovary) - pituitary gland LH (controls ovulation) - pituitary gland Progesterone (maintains uterus wall) - ovaries Oestrogen (repairs uterus wall) - ovaries |
| What controls the negative feedback system for the menstrual cycle? | The receptors in the hypothalamus |
| What happens to the levels of oestrogen and progesterone if fertilisation doesn't occur? | They decrease |
| When does menstruation occur (in terms of oestrogen and progesterone levels)? | When oestrogen and progesterone levels are low |
| Why, when an egg is fertilised, do progesterone levels stay high and no FSH is produced? | So the uterus lining does not break down and so no more eggs develop |
| How can artificial sex hormones control fertility? | Prevents it by making the body think it's pregnant, stopping FSH production. |
| Name 2 reasons for male and 2 reasons for female infertility | Male - not enough fertile sperm/sperm duct blocked Female - no eggs developed or released/fallopian tubes being blocked |
| Name 6 treatments for infertility | -artificial insemination(injecting sperm into uterus) -using FSH to stimulate egg development -IVF(egg is fertilised outside body) -Egg donation -Surrogacy(fertilised egg put in another woman) -Ovary transplant |
| Which 3 treatments have big medical issues? | egg donation, surrogacy, ovary transplants |
| 4 problems with IVF | Expensive, low rate of success (25%), risk of multiple births and lower birth rate |
| Name 2 ways in which baby abnormalities can be checked | -Amniocentesis (extracting and testing cells in the amniotic fluid) -Chromosomal analysis (testing blood for chromosome abnormalities) |
| What are the problems with foetal screening? | Whether it's right to interfere with nature, whether an unborn foetus has the right to life, risk of foetus expulsion |
| What can help increase growth? | Balanced diet (calcium, phosphorous, vitamin D, proteins) and regular excercise |
| What are extremes of height caused by? | hormone imbalance, genes |
| What are the 5 main stages of growth? | Infancy, childhood, adolescence, maturity, old age |
| Why are babies' growth usually monitored for the first 6 months? | To check for any growth abnormalities |
| Where is the human growth hormone produced? | In the pituitary gland (stimulates growth mainly in long bones) |
| 5 factors for life expectancy growth | better housing...healthier diets...healthier lifestyles...less industrial disease...more effective cures |
| How does this life expectancy increase effect people on a personal level? | May not be able to enjoy life fully if ill, less jobs for youth |
| How does this life expectancy increase effect people on a national level? | Burdens on health service and pension funds |
| Why are their limited organs? | Restricted by size, age, shortage of donors |
| 4 problems with mechanical replacements | dependence on power supply...properties of material...large size...body's reaction |
| What can living donors donate? | blood, bone marrow, kidney |
| 3 things that a dead donor can donate | cornea, heart, liver |
| Problems with dead donors | -many not be 'brain dead' -other ethical and religious issues |
| What 2 things are needed to ensure a successful transplant? | -Tissue matching(avoid rejection) -Immuno-suppressant drugs |
| What is an opt-out system? | Some countries assume that they can take your organs when you die so you have to opt out of the system |
| A problem with immuno-suppressive drugs | Can lead to body not being able to protect itself from pathogens and other harmful micro-organisms |
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