• Developmental psychology is the systematic scientific study of how we change over our lifespans • Developmental psychology is interdisciplinary, including physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development • Developmental psychology tends to focus on child development, but changes over adulthood are also important to consider Continuous development theories - assume that development is continuous and cumulative - based on this, developmental changes are quantitative and can be measured, e.g., information processing theories Discontinuous development theories - assume that development is discontinuous and we move through different stages of development - based on this developmental changes are qualitative, e.g., Piaget's stages of cognitive development. Nature vs Nurture Nature - e refers to the biological underpinnings of our behaviour (specifically genetic influences), including instincts and innate behaviours and traits Nurture - refers to environmental influences on our behaviour, including culture, context, and family influences - Influences from both nature and nurture can affect both normative development and individual differences Observational studies Naturalistic - recording behaviour in the natural environment Field studies - utilise random assignments in natural settings, Field experimental studies allow researchers to control or manipulate variable(s) of interest, e.g. observing children in the playground when an adult is present and when no adults are present Quasi-experimental studies - compare individuals with pre-existing differences, with the groups selected to match characteristics as much as possible, e.g. observing children from state and private schools in the playground Structured observation - recording behaviour in a lab setting which is designed to produce a behaviour Event sampling - the number of observations of a particular behaviour over a specified time period  Time sampling - whether or not the behaviour occurs over a sample of short time intervals Limitations of Observational studies:  • Observer influence – participants react in unnatural ways • Observer bias – observers record what they expect to happen, not what actually happens   Lab experiments on infants - Measuring the amount of time babies spend looking at certain patterns orr images to measure preferential looking. - fMRI and PET are not suitable for use with infants, as they require participants to sit still for a long time, and PET involves the injection of a radioactive tracer Operant Conditioning - an associative learning process where the strength of a behaviour is modified by reinforcement or punishment Interview studies with children Limitations include: - Language level may limit the child’s ability to understand and/or respond to questions • Recall accuracy in the child may be limited • Demand characteristics may result in the child responding in the way they think will please the examiner Interview studies with parents Limitations include: - Parents may wish to achieve/avoid a particular diagnosis for their child. - Parents' recall of events and/or their judgement or interpretation of events may be biased.  Case studies case studies bring together information related to one child from multiple sources, including observations, parent or caregiver interviews, test scores, and psychophysiological measurements • The main limitation of case studies is uncertainty over whether the results can be generalised Research designs in developmental psychology - Developmental psychology studies changes in abilities or behaviours over the lifespan - Longitudinal studies - the same participants tested multiple times at different ages - Cross-sectional studies - different participants with varying ages can be tested once - Sequential studies- a mixture of the two approaches can be used Longitudinal design - studies the same participants repeatedly at different ages or stages in their life -repeated measures design with one sample, multiple testing times, and the same sample compared at different times Limitations include: - drop out occurs, and selective attrition may occur if some people are more likely to withdraw in others, resulting in a biased sample - Practice effects may occur if participants take the same test multiple times, giving untrue results over time - Results may not be applicable to people with different ages due to different experiences - Longitudinal studies are time-consuming and expensive Cross-sectional design - different participants with different ages are tested once - Independent between groups design, more than one sample (Age group), all tested once then compared Limitations include: - Individual differences between particiapants may influence the results - The cause of changes cannot be fully assessed as data is only available from one time point for participants - As data is from one age only, the results may be different at different ages - Cohort effects occur when individuals of different ages have different experiences and this may affect study results – it is then unclear if differences are due to age or experiences Sequential designs - Participants with different ages are tested repeatedly as they change ages, allows for advantages of both designs - Allows researchers to explore which effects related to age are true age effects, and which are true cohort effects are due to historical events. Ethics of research with children - Children may be more vulnerable to harm than adults  - Informed consent - child cannot fully give informed consent if they cannot fully understand the study. If deception is necessary would children understand this in the debrief? - Right to withdraw -- children may have a desire to please even if they no longer wish to participate

Chromosome – a long stretch of DNA containing the genetic code for the individual Embryo – an early stage of development, after fertilisation and before body structures have formed Foetus – the unborn offspring that develops from the embryo Gene – a segment of DNA that codes for a protein Gamete – the sex / reproductive cells (sperm and egg / ova in humans) Zygote – a single cell consisting of the fertilised egg   Zygotes and Chromosomes Human life begins as a zygote Zygotes contain 46 chromosomes, in 23 pairs (one chromosome in each pair inherited from mother and the other from the father)  Karyotype - an individual's collection of their chromosomes Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of the cell, and they contain the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which is the genetic code for an individual The Genetic Code  - The DNA has a characteristic double-stranded helix structure - The DNA in our chromosomes contain our genes - genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions to produce proteins - Environmental factors interact with genes to modify their expression and the amount of protein produced, leading to variation in proteins between people and contributing to the variations in traits and abilities between individuals Aneuploidy - occurs when an individual does not have the typical 46 chromosomes  - Risk of aneuploidy increases with increasing maternal age Sex chromosome aneuploidy - Triple X (XXX) syndrome - females possess an extra X chromosome, causes tall height and affects verbal abilities, 1 in 1000 female birth chance - Keinfelter syndrome  (XXY) - males possess an extra X chromosome. 1 in 1000 male births, males tend to be tall with weaker muscles, fertility and verbal abilities may be affected -XYY syndrome (XYY) - males possess an extra Y chromosome, 1 in 1000 male births; males are typically tall and have learning difficulties - Turner syndrome (X) - females missing an X chromosome, 1 in 2000 to 1 in 5000 female births, females are typically short with a webbed neck, fertility, and spatial abilities are affected Autosomal aneuploidies Down syndrome (trisomy 21) - individuals possess an extra copy of chromosome 21, 1 in 1000 births, intellectual disability and characteristic facial features; individuals tend to be short with low muscle tone Patau syndrome (trisomy 13) – individuals possess an extra copy of chromosome 1; 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 21,700 births, associated with intellectual disability and polydactyly (extra toes or fingers) Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) – individuals possess an extra copy of chromosome 18; 1 in 5,000 births, associated with intellectual disability, individuals tend to be short • Both Patau syndrome and Edwards syndrome are associated with high infant mortality, with only up to 10% of infants reaching their first birthday Multiple Pregnancies - May occur due to one or multiple zygotes - Twins may be monozygotic (identical) or dizygotic (non-identical/fraternal twins) Stages in Prenatal development - There are approximately 38 weeks/9 months between conception and birth - Development is predetermined and under genetic instructions There are three stages of development: • Zygote – the germinal stage, lasting the first two weeks • Embryo – the embryonic stage, lasting between weeks 3-8 • Foetus – the foetal stage, lasting from week 9 to birth Germinal stage  - occurs in the first 2 weeks after the zygote is formed Embryonic stage - occurs 3-8 weeks after the zygote is formed - embryo is surrounded by a protective sad of amniotic fluid Foetal stage First trimester - occurs between 9-38 weeks after the zygote is formed - foetus starts to be able to move, lungs start to expand and contract, heartbeat is audible using a stethoscope or ultrasound, external genitalia are formed - start of bone development, eyelids and toenails forming Second trimester - Foetus is large enough for the mother to feel kicks - Almost all neurons have developed by the end of the trimester - Organs, muscles, and nervous system become more organised - Foetus shows thumb sucking, swallowing, yawning, hiccupping, as well as sensitivity to sound and the opening and closing of the eyes   Third trimester - foetus is able to cry, swallow, digest, and excrete - foetus spends more time awake - increased coordination between systems - early signs of personality may be seen   Prenatal risks and teratogens Teratogens- agents that cause developmental deviations Genetic variations: mutations, chromosomal atypicalities Drugs Tobacco Alcohol Radiation Metals (Mercury, lead) Maternal infectious diseases (Zika virus, rubella, herpes simplex) Parental factors e.g. age, nutrition, stress Sensitive periods in development - embryonic stage is when there is greatest vulnerability to damage - Central nervous system is vulnerable to damage throughout the whole of the embryonic and foetal stages Alcohol as a teratogen • Foetal alcohol syndrome • Partial foetal alcohol syndrome • Alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder Symptoms of foetal alcohol spectrum disorders include: • Characteristic facial appearance (small eyes with a small upper lip and flat groove between the nose and upper lip) • Short height, with a low body weight and small head size • Effects on brain development, specifically learning and behavioural difficulties, and poor coordination Postnatal development -Humans are relatively helpless just afer birth - Human brains mature relatively late (age 25) compared to chimpanzee brains (age 6) Physical growth during childhood The fastest growth occurs in infancy, with brain weight doubling by age 5 months - Growth slows during early and mid childhood - There is then a growth spurt during puberty, and this occurs earlier in girls than boys Changes in body proportions  - at birth the head grows fastest, but by early childhood the trunk and legs have started to grow fastest Postnatal brain development - At birth we have 100 billion neurons - Our brains grow approximately fourfold after birth - Increase in brain size is due to the growth of neural connections and the production of glial cells - Glial cells make up around half of the cells in our brains, and their numbers rapidly increase from the second trimester to age 3   Lateralisation of the Cerebral cortex The two hemispheres of the brain show lateralisation during development Left hemisphere - Sensory input from and motor control of the right side of the body - Language processing - Analytical processing   Right hemisphere - Sensory input from and motor control of the left side of the body - Emotional and social processing - Holistic processing   Brain plasticity - Brains plasticity allows regions of the brain to take over new functions - Greater plasticity is seen in early development - this allows for cortical reorganisation and enables a better recovery from brain injury, especially for language skills, though more complex skills may not show a full functional recovery - Brain plasticity allows us to learn skills due to our experiences - stimulating the brain is essential for both the development of universal skills and individual skills

Children’s TV watching - Almost all children had access to a TV at home - Older children are more likely to have their own smartphone, tablet, and have more hours of screen time per week - Boys watch more TV and spend more time online and playing video games, but girls spend more time on their mobile phones than boys.  - Children in industrialised nations watch more TV than children in developing nations TV watching in infants and toddlers -Infants 0-18 months  - Infacnts are interested in the tv; they are attracted by the light and sound, but have a short attention span - 40% of 3 month olds regularly watch TV Toddlers 2-3 years old - Toddlers have a longer attention span than infants, and are able to extract meaning from TV shows, but they have a difficulty distinguishing between fantasy and reality - 90% of 2 year olds regularly watch TV Early childhood 3-5 years old - In early childhood then children are still attracted to the sights and sounds of TV and they understand TV is not the real world - Have a difficulty in following sequences of events Middle childhood 6-11 years - Children can understand that actors follow scripts, and they are better able to follow storylines and sequences of events - Children in middle childhood still have difficulty in critically evaluating what they see  TV and the developing brain Early TV watching has been linked to later attentional problems, including ADHD TV and attention Christakis et al (2004) Assessed the long term impact of watching TV in early development of attention at the age of 7 - Watching more hours of TV at ages 1 and 3 was associated with a greater likelihood of attentional problems at age 7  Evaluation: - The sample was a national study, so it is representative - The reseachers had controlled for other relevant variables - The study was longitudinal Limitations: - The sample is not a clinical sample; Behavioural problems Index is not a clinical measure for ADHD. Any links to ADHD therefore are speculative - Measures were based on parental report - social desiribility bias TV and violence - In the US, by the age of 11, children will have seen over 8k murders on TV, and for 75% of these the killer is unpunished or shows no remorse/accountability - Effects:  - children may become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others Drabman and Thomas (1974) showed 8-10 year olds a film (either violent or non- violent), then asked them to watch over two younger children on a video monitor – the younger children played quietly at first, but became progressively violent, resulting in a physical fight and the destruction of the video camera • The 8-10 year olds who had seen the violent film were slower to intervene and less psychologically aroused when they saw the younger children fighting • Strength: this result was later replicated for 10-12 year olds (Molitor and Hirsh 1994) • Limitation: the study is lab based so in an artificial setting – do the results have ecological validity? - children may become more fearful of the world around them Donnerstein, Slaby, and Eron (1994) assessed how mass media (in particular TV) facilitates violence and aggression in children and adolescents, finding that children who watch a lot of TV believe there is more violence in society than there actually is • This finding is particularly strong for children who believe televised aggression is relevant to their own lives - children may be more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways towards others Bandura et al (1961) Strengths: Researchers could control for participant characteristics between the groups; the study has been replicated to find similar findings Limitations: Ecological validity is low due to being conducted in a lab setting; long term effects on aggressive behaviours are unknown children who were familiar with the bobo doll than others at the start of the study were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour TV and pro-social behaviour - Pro-social content can model pro-social behaviour - children who watch programmes with pro-social content also act more pro-socially (Calvert and Kotlet, 2003) - Pro-social content can be overriden by negative content TV and cognitive development - Educational programmes / informative programmes are associated with better academic performance - Frequently viewing general audience programmes was associated with poorer academic scores   TV watching was found to: • Increase physical and verbal aggression during play • Decrease reading abilities and creative thinking • Increase gender-stereotyped beliefs • Decrease adolescent participation in community activities

Moral development concerns the rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with others (Kurtines, Gewitz & Lamb, 2014) Morality Psychological definition: Justice, Liberty, care for others Influence of philosophy: rational basis of morality = reasoning, not feelings/behaviours Influence on moral reasoning: Emotional, cultural, gender Social learning Effects of punishment: The strength/intensity of punishment determines how well a child learns Physical punishment leads to a 'cycle of violence' Child may think rules apply only in the presence of an adult 3 types of discipline: - Love-oriented discipline - Power-assertive discipline - Inductive (more effective; Hoffman, 1989) > Authoritative parenting is associated with positive outcomes in childhood and adolescence   Jean Piaget: Moral vignettes Heteronomous stage Connotes absolutism in morality  Justice and rules are unchangeable / moral realism Believes in immanent justice Objective responsibility Egocentric and adult constraint Autonomous stage Rules and laws are made by people Arbitrary, formed by consent for fairness/equality Consideration of intention and consequence Co-operation moral positioning Moving beyond egocentricism Developmental shift - striking progress in childrens's cognitive development between the ages of 5 and 7 occur Distributive justice - Pure self interest > Egalitarian > Equitarian - Group solidarity importance - Heteronomous reasoners authority figure reliance - Autonomous reasoners peer relation reliance    Social relations and authority - Constraint and co-operation - Authority leads to constraint (assymetry in social relations) - Absence of authority (symmetry in social relations) makes co-operation possible - Paired with a peer = greater improvements in moral reasoning and discussion   Lawrence Kohlberg Cognitive-development theory - Development is a consequence of increasing cognitive capacities - Greater cognitive capacity = moral problem sensibilities - Development continues to adulthood - Logic drives development, not social relations   Kohlberg: Preconventional level - Morality as consequences of disobedience to adult rules - used to avoid punishment - behaviours are 'good' or 'bad' depending on their consquences - no comprehension of societal rules Stage 1:  - Egocentric, Id dominant - Punishment is avoided for self-comfort - Obey authority figures or face punishment Stage 2: - Social exchanges / what's in it for me mentality - Less egocentric - Freudian approach, 'reality principle' Conventional level - grasp social rules, objective perception of right/wrong - superego development -consience forming - egocentrism largly gone Stage 3: - Social approval motivates good behaviour Stage 4:  - Maintainign social conventions 'law and order'  - Egocentric to sociocentric - Sense of 'doing one's duty' Post-conventional level Stage 5: - "social contract" stage - laws, rules, and regulations created for the mutual benefit of all - unjust laws changed, democracy in action - universal ethical principles - laws only good if they serve the common good   Kohlberg criticisms: - Gender bias based on male moral reasoning and had an all-male sample, then inappropriately generalised his findings to women - Logic is less of a factor in real-life dilemmas; attribution is important - Excludes alternative forms of reasoning, social and cultual diversity   Earlier understandings Dunn, 1987 - Children demonstrate moral understanding earlier than Kohlberg's theory states: At 2, moral judgements are made referring to a sibling violating expectations in a conflic situation At 3, children demonstrate understanding of being accountable for behaviours At 5, children differentiate between types of transgressions and responses change as they age - Children who had better understanding of moral issues had mothers who demonstrated a better method of conflict resolution when the children were 3 years old - Children's ability to assess how others feel was related to how they respond to various moral issues   Emotional morality Children distinguish moral and conventional rules;  - Understand the rights and welfare of others - Understand behaviours that structure interactions Moral emotions are shown from ages 2-3 and are understood from around 6 years old   - Negative emotions serve as antecedent to moral judgement - Emotional responses prompt consideration of justice issues   Moral emotions - guilt - guilt linked to lower levels of anti-social and risky behaviour - psychopaths more likely to rate accidental harm as morally permissible - bullies often poor at linking emotions to own and others' behaviour   Moral understanding and behaviour “Delinquents” show lower level of reasoning • Aggressive/behavioural disorders don’t distinguish moral and conventional rules - Children bad at attributing moral emotions to story characters; • More likely to cheat   Domain and domain shifts Different domains : Moral, Conventional, Personal Culture/religion has an important influence on moral reasoning   Gilligan: 3 level Care perspective Level 1: self-interest • Decisions based on one’s own needs & survival  Level 2: self-sacrifice • Decisions based on others’ needs Level 3: universal obligation • Balance between one’s own needs and others’ needs   Gender differences and critiques Women's abortion dilemma

Temperament is the "basic foundation of personality", usually assumed to be biologically determined and present early in life.  Temperament at activity level - how active the child is generally - whether the child is always on the go, or pregers sedentary quiet activities - children channel extra energy into success, perform well in high-energy careers, and keep up with responsibilities Temperament distracibility - Concentration and attention displayed when not particularly interested - Distraction when following routines, easily interfered by external stimuli - may prevent finishing tasks - divert child from undesirable behaviour Temperament intensity  - The energy level of a response: react strongly or loudly, or does the child just get quiet when upset? - More likely to have needs - Gifted in dramatic arts, and can be exhausting Temperament regularity - The predictability of biological functions such as appetite/sleep - Irregular individuals that are better with traveling and are likely to adapt to careers with unusual working hours Temperament sensory threshold  - Sensitivity to physical stimuli such as sounds, tastes, touch, temperature changes - Highly sensitive individuals more likely artistic and creative Temperament approach/withdrawal - Response to new situation/strangers - Slow to warm up, think before they act, and less likely to act impulsively Temperament adaptability - Adapting to transition and changes - Less likely to rush into dangerous situations - Less influenced by peer pressure Temperament persistence - Length of time a child continues in the face of obstacles - Persists in an actiivty, labelled stubborn - Seen as being patient, likely to succeed in reaching goals - Low persistence may develop strong social to ask for help Temperament mood - Reacting primarily positively or negatively - Focus on the positive or negative aspects of life - Serious children tend to be analytical and evaluate situations Categories of temperament - Easy children (40%) - Difficult children (10%) - Slow to warm up (15%) - Uncategorised (35%)   Why is temperament important? Persistent children - more likely to succeed in school Active, distractable children - less likely to succeed in school Anxious, fearful children - More likely to comply to parents' rules Fearful, angry children - more prone to depression Evidence of continuity of temperament into adulthood (Caspi et al, 2003) Prediction is best after age 3   Attachment + Parenting style/response = Social and emotional development   Attachment - Strong, affectionate tie with special people - Experience pleasure and joy from interaction - Comforted by closeness (Harlow and Zimmerman, baby Monkey studies) John Bowlby - attachment theory - recognises attachment as an infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival - attachment is strengthened through emotional or physical comfort rather than feeding    4 Early development stages of attachment 1. 0-3 months old baby - Newborn reflexes help maintain proximity to caregiver and directs attachment to human figures - Adults are predisposed to respond to infant cries and smiles 2. 3-6 months - Attachment is more focused on primary caregier 3. 6-9 months - Attachment increases towards primary caregiver, development of separation anxiety 4. 9-12 months - Development of working model of attachment, individual differences become apparent   Internal Working Model Child forms internal mental representation of attachment relationships of their first attachment (schema) • Motivation for attachment is biological, but process is based on experience • The cognitive schema of attachment: • Ideas about attachment figures and what to expect of them • Ideas about the self • Ideas of how self and others relate   Ainsworth, 1973. Attachment and 'safe base'   Attachment and safe base phenomenon Ainsworth (1973): “an affectional tie that one person or animal forms between himself and another specific one – a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time” • Importance of maintaining close contact, balanced with need to explore (safe base) • Attachment behaviours most obvious when tired/ill/frightened • Separation and reunion episodes trigger differences in infant proximity seeking and exploration - People identify a person that provides them with comfort and security as their 'safe base'. This is the person that they go to when they feel anxious or fearful   Ainsworth's attachment styles Secure attachment (Type B) - Caregiver is sensitive to signals and responds appropriately to infant's needs - Children have confidence in attachment figure - Model of attachment is seen as being available, responsive, and helpful Insecure avoidant (Type A) - Caregiver is likely insensitive and rejecting of needs - The child does not orient to attachment figure, avoids them physically - Both child and parent show individuality in both physical and emotional aspects - Child does not seek contact when distressed Insecure ambivalent / resistant (Type C) - caregiver is inconsistent in level of response to needs - Child commonly exhibits clingy and dependent behaviour, but will reject the attachment figure when they engage - Feelings of security fail to develop - Child is difficult to soothe and not comforted by interaction Disorganised/disorientated (Type D) - caregiver fails to create secure base - Child loves, cares, and craves the caregiver, but also fears.  - child remains unsure of how caregiver will respond to needs - Confliction of child's instincts   Evaluation of Ainsworth - Does not take babies' experience into account; babies might have been avoidant due to unfamiliarity, daycare environment might not have been comfortable for the children, and the accounts were based on single observations -Validity: results were based on primary caregiver attachment only; lacks ecological validity due to the setting being in a daycare and not in the families' homes; cultural differences, results cannot be generalised across cultures   Izjendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) Meta-analysis across 8 countries, investigated intra-culture and inter-cultural variation - Japanese children are never left alone; 'strange situation' is very distressing Improving attachment associations -Sensitivity to infant's needs - Responsiveness to infant's specific signals - Talking and playing with  Maternal sensitivity at 4 months predicates secure attachments (Braungart-Rieker et al., 2001) • Predictors of adult attachment type: • Perception of quality of relationship with each parent • Parental relationships

Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934) - Russian Soviet Psychologist - Studied Piaget's work extensively - Emphasised role of culture - DIed early before his theory of Sociocultural social development was complete. - Work remained unknown in the West until the 60s and 70s   Piaget = thought drives language Vygotsky = thought and language independent   Private speech Speaking aloud to yourself Self talk Regulates cognitive processes Guide/regulates behaviour Transition between: speaking with others and thinking for yourself - Behavioural and emotional self-regulation - Improves goal orientation, emotion regulation - Mimics parental speech > Memory - Private speech as memory-enhancing strategy - Improves self-efficacy and motivation, immersive speech practice, encourages creative, flexible, and original thoughts   Elementary mental functions Innate and natural  Develop during the first 2 years of age through world interaction Examples: Attention, Perception, Involuntary memory Higher mental functions Develop once language is acquired Cognitive processes and mediators Examples: Voluntary attention, complex memory, abstraction Cultural importance Higher functions are cultural Socially evolved and organised tools  Language drives development - enables social dialogue participation Cognition as inter-psychological - Higher mental function through social interactions - Learning to think/solve problems, seeking guidance from 'expert' - Guided participation - The child is active in this process; use of private speech Zone of Proximal development - the distance between independent and assisted problem solving.  3 Components for moving through ZPD: More knowledgeable other - Seeking others who have higher ability levels and better understanding in the thing being learnt Social interaction - Involved cooperation and collaboration with others; Behaviour modelling, verbal instructions Scaffolding - Reaching our potential; achieving goals beyong unassisted capabilities Cultural Variations Ellis and Gauvin, 1992. Collective cultures are preferable to individualistic cultures - Individualistic competition involves lack of collaboration and focus on egocentrism Peer Collaboration -Collective approach increases - Results in achievement, self-esteem boost, and motivation   Intersubjectivity  - The process whereby two people begin a task with different understandign and then arrive at a shared understanding Private speech - Self-directed speech that children use to guide their own thinking and behaviour Scaffolding  - Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the current level of performance ZPD/ Zone of Proximal Development - The distance between independent problem-solving ability and the ability to solve problems with the help of others Guided Participation - Refers to shared endeavours between more expert and less expert participants

1. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Piaget  - Constructivist: knowledge is constructed through interaction - Not through learning (empiricism - like vygotsky) - Not an innate unfolding (rationalism) - Experiences can accelerate development - A child is born with innate set of reflexes. Schema  - Interpretative shortcuts - Patterns of repeated behaviour Adaptation consists of 2 activities: 1. Assimilation - Used to interpret the external world; common in early childhood but continues throughout life; somewhat subjective; cognitive process of making new information fit into pre-existing schemas 2. Accomodation - If events don't conform to schemas, child adjusts to them. Existing schemas are altered by new information or experiences  Equilibration - Occurs when assimilating rather than accomodating; accomodation upsets equilibration so a new higher level of organisation must be developed Equilibrium  - cognitive balancing of new information with old knowledge   2. Piaget’s Stages of Development • Sensorimotor - Birth to 2 yrs - have to see something to know it exists - Behaviours lack thought and logic - Progressive construction of knowledge through: coordinating experiences, and interactions with objects. Object Permanence - Realise objects still exist even when it can't be perceived Internal representation - ability to think about objects/events not immediately present Object permanence indicates internal representations   • Preoperational - 2-6/7 years old - Learn to use symbols, signs, and language  - Egocentrism - cannot understand another person's point of view - Cannot understand concrete logic yet and cannot mentally manipulate information - do not understand the concept of Conservation and Reversibility - challenges with Centration - a child's tendency to fixate on just one aspect of a problem or object - Later on, children develop a Theory of mind, and begin to understand the perspective of others   • Concrete Operational - age 6-7 to ages 10-12 - Logical thought if concepts are familiar - Problem solving and discovery learning  - Concrete events or objects are still required for problem solving  - Inductive reasoning develops - inferences from observations are needed to make generalisations - Conservation skill develops, but difficulty with abstraction remains -  experience de-centration   • Formal Operational - development of metacognition and problem solving - abstract thought develops - no longer depend on 'concrete' existence - hypothetical and deductive reasoning   Critical evaluation of Piaget -  - Replicated numerously in peer review research - thought structure accepted - most agree with some version of constructivism - assimilation/accommodation mostly accepted - Broad spectrum - Use of multiple methods / triangulation             • Formal Operational 3. Critical Evaluation of Piaget

Background to the Information Processing Approach Modern psychology moves away from behaviourism Thinks of the mind as a computer that processes information Development allows us to overcome processing limitations Domain general Global knowledge structure Knowledge internalised from experience Interdependent Domain specific  Independent Specialised knowledge structures Structure: Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Central executive Mechanisms of change Mind = limitation of a child Processes = mechanisms to overcome limitations IPS focuses on changes in performance Encoding 1st steps of memory creation Brain 'encode' sensory inputs Visual, acoustic, semantic, tactile, elaborative, and organisational encoding We can improve our encoding ability by imagination, association, location, humor, etc. Strategy formation Hippocampus and frontal cortex- encoded information and previous knowledge is assessed Construction of strategy - solution for specific task/problem etc. Generalisation ability to apply formed strategies to other contexts Solutions have multiple applications Understand solution applicability Automatisation Making strategy automatic More effective Attention required lessons example: driving a car, playing guitar   Information processing theories of Cognitive Development Case's Neo-Piagetian Theory Arose from criticism of Piaget's cognitive development Doesn't fully explain why development from stage to stage occurs Ignores individual differences of speed progression through stages of development Considers social-cognition; culture and interaction influence development Rather than stages, development is more like a staircase. Case's Executive Control Sensorimotor - 1 ti 18 months, perceptions and actions Inter-relational - 18 months to 5 years, mental representation of actual objects Dimensional - 5 to 11 years, relation between preexisting and new knowledge Vectorial - 11 to 19 years, more complex understandings Case's Neo-Piagetian Perspective - Children are unable to attend to and process all the relevant information for a task, because there are limits in their processing capacity. Working memory includes operating space + storage space - To be more efficient, the proportion taken up by processing basic operations must be reduced - Biological constraints play a part - Working memory is a key predictor for many aspects of learning - Contrasts with Piaget in terms of domain-specificity   SIegler's theory of Strategy choice Evolutionary perspective on cognition Generates a variety of strategies wherein selected strategies survive and others die off Cognitive development increases sophisticated problem solving Observed children's performance across domains: Maths, conservation, memory span, telling time, spelling, etc. Piaget's Balance Beam strategy children were shown a beam with weights on either side, and were asked which way it will tip if wedge is removed Demonstrates different stages of development: Age 6 and under cannot understand/comprehend this  Age 7 children have general understanding/some success Precise understanding comes later SIegler's Balance Beam Strategies Number of weights on each side only  Distance from center only if number of weights equal Distaance from center and number considered Multiply number of weights on peg by peg's ordinal distance from fulcrum Findings:  Siegler found that 5 year olds initially used just Strategy 1 After training and online feedback, progressed to Strategy 2/3 Kali's processing speed Age is a central factor underlying cognitive development, increasing cognitive processing speed Increase in speed to perform tasks could be due to:  More efficient strategies  Biologically determined processing speed differences Global processing speed Children are consistently slower than adults Due to domain general change rahter than domain specfic change  Global processing increases with age and processing speed Processing is constrained across full range of cognitive tasks What develops? Attention Sustained attention: ability to maintain concentration Selective attention: ability to focus on relevant part of task and inhibit distractors Adaptable attention: ability to switch perspectives; zoom in and out of attentional focus Sustained attention development Increases sharply betewen 2 and 3.5 years Frontal lobe growth More complex play goals Adult scaffolding Cognitive Inhibition Ability to control distracting stimuli: Internal - thoughts External - distractions Improves from infancy onwards; gains on complex tasks from middle childhood to adolescence Miller et al. 1986 - Selective attention development Strategies emerge and are refined during 4 phases: 1. Production deficiency (preschool): Fail to produce effective strategies 2. Control deficiency (Age 5): Fail to control, or execute strategies efficiently 3. Utilization deficiency (Age 6-7): Execute strategies efficiently but performance does not improve significantly 4. Effective strategy use (Age 8-9) Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Inattention Impulsivity Excessive motor activity Results in social and academic problems Memory  Control processes include rehearsal, organisation, semantic elaboration, allocation of study time Rehearsal: few 5 yr olds, most 10 year olds will rehearse, younger children can be taught to rehearse and their memory improves Elaboration: older children do more to make information semantically meaningful   Recognition and recall Noticing that a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced Easier than recall Habituation studies show that infants are good at recognition memory The abilitiy to generate a mental representation of an absent stimulus is more difficult than recognition (recall) 2 year olds can recall 1-2 items while 4 year olds can only recall 3 or 4 items Construcitve processing Memory is not just a passive process; we select and interpret information as it is encoded, stored, or retrieved can happen deliberately or due to automatic formation of 'fuzzy trace'  Verbatim vs. Gist Memory Gist traces - fuzzy representations of a past event (fuzzy trace theory) or its bottom-line meaning Verbatim traces - detailed representations of a past events   Knowledge and memory Knowledge comes first Previously believed knowledge reflected cognition changes (cognitive development = knowledge) Now knowledge changes are driving force, not the result Knowledge = cognitive development Autobiographical memory Long-lasting representations of one-time events Personal meaning  Infantile amnesia - inability to recall events before the age of 3 Habituation = memory Verbal skills underlie memory, memory is the anchor of self-concept Parents help develop narrative through elaboration and repetition Securely attached children have more robust autobiographical memory Cultural differences: Western children have better autobiographical memory than Asian children, because collectivist values de-emphasise talking about self Eyewitness memory Preschoolers' testimony is less reliable than school-age children's  Less-developed language skills Desire to please Poorer source-monitoring Bias towards specifics; less gist memory Less skill with autobiographical narratives - may leave out details Suggestibility

Atypical development -  development that differs from what would be expected given the child’s chronological age Atypical development may be associated with differences in behaviour, emotions, or cognitive abilities relative to what is expected in typical development. When assessing if development is atypical it is important to consider: • Cultural norms • Characteristics of the child and their personality • Characteristics of the referring adult • Characteristics of the professional   Identifying Atypical Development - Comparing behaviours to diagnostic criteria according to the DSM-5 or ICD-11 or by determining if some aspect of development deviates from the statistical average (e.g. IQ) - Atypical behaviours must be present over time - Delayed development - skills develop later than is typically seen - Disordered development - skills develop that are different in quality / form / function than those that are typically seen   Causes of atypical development 1. Oxygen Deprivation Oxygen deprivation / anoxia / hypoxia before, during, or after birth can impact the brain development of a baby  This may occur due to:  A failure to start breathing in the first few minutes following birth Problems with the umbilical cord Premature separation of the placenta  Hemorrhaging of the placenta Rhesus factor incompatibility between the mother and infant May lead to:  Developmental delay Epilepsy Cerebral palsy Infants typically start to breathe in the first few minutes following birth, and can survive long without oxygen than adults through reducing their metabolic rate to conserve what oxygen is available, but if oxygen deprivation occurs for longer than 10 minutes, then brain damage occurs.  Umbilical cord problems may occur due to twisting, squeezing, knotting, or prolapse. There is an increased likelihood of umbilical cord problems happening if the infant is in the breech position or upside down - breech babies are often delivered by caesarean. Placental abruption may be caused by advanced maternal age (over 40), and if the placenta is exposed to teratogens such as tobacco, cocaine, and alcohol, etc. Developmental Delay  Skills may improve over time, though effects may persist into later childhood Epilepsy Presence of seizures ranging from simple to serious  Genetics or brain injury can also result in the development of epilepsy Cerebral Palsy Associated with problems with movement, coordination, and development early signs include 'jerking' movement there is a large range of severity of cerebral palsy   BIRTH WEIGHT • The average birthweight is 3400g (7lb 8oz) • Low birth weights are those under 2500g (5lb 8oz) • Birth weights under 1500g (3lb 5oz) usually result in long- term impacts on development • Babies with low birth weights are more likely to catch infections in the first year of life and have atypical brain development, and by middle childhood tend to have poorer educational attainments, show reduced social maturity, and have a smaller stature   Interventions for atypical development Evaluating interventions Early interventions may have beneficial effects on cognition and behaviour for infants who are born pre-term or who have a low birth weight. When evaluating interventions, it is important to consider: What factors may promote or reduce intervention success When is the best stage of development to intervene How much intervention is needed to improve outcomes Who should deliver the intervention Which outcomes should be considered to indicate benefit of the intervention Components of reliable intervention studies Reliable intervention studies typically have: - An intervention group and a control group - this allows the effects of the intervention to be separated from general effects of development of practice effects - Random allocation of children to the two groups to reduce bias - Appropriate outcome assessmentes - these should be standardised, relevant to the intervention, assessed blind to group membership, and administered pre and post intervention, with a follow-up assessment some time after the intervention.  - A sufficient sample size to show if the intervention is effective.  - The intervention should also be based on theoretical understanding or previous evidence. The infant health and development program - IHDP was designed to promote the cognition and behaviour of pre-term, low birth weight infants - Program was set up for 3 years; the intervention group received weekly home visits in the child's first year, and fortnightly visits for the following 2 yrs., High quality, full day childcare in the second and third years consisting of a systematic educational program that was provided in specialised child developmental centres - Parental support groups - Both the intervention and control groups received 3 years of paedriatric care, free of charge Results: - The intervention group had better cognitive and behavioural outcomes than the control group - Mothers in the intervention group were more affectionate and more frequently encouraged play and cognitive mastery than those in the control group - The impact of the intervention depended on the individual variations in the infant and their family; children whose families were more reugularly involved in the program had better intellectual abilities at ages 5 and 8 compared to those who were involved more sporadically - Higher birth weight was associated with better academic achievement and engaging in fewer risky behaviours at age 18 Teaching caregiving skills Caregiving skills may be taught to parents, including aspects relating to recognising and responding to the baby's needs - Benefits of teaching caregiving skills include enhancing parent-child interactions, reduced infant crying, improved infant sleep, more rapid language development, and gains in cognitive ability