In sociology, what does the term 'modernity' refer to?

It is widely believed that modern ways of thinking originated in the 18th century, alongside which movement?

Enlightenment thinking suggests that human societies don't have to be run simply according to tradition or according to religious beliefs. Rather, what could humans turn to for knowledge of the world?

Enlightenment went hand-in-hand with the transformation of Western societies through what?

Who was perhaps the most influential sociological analyst of modernity?

Weber believed that modernity involved three things. What were they?

Above all, what idea is modernity based on?

By the 1980s, sociologists were aware that enormous changes were occurring within modern societies. Which traditional 'modern' social characteristics were no longer an accurate reflection of British societies?

Some sociologists believed that these significant changes had resulted in societies moving towards what they called 'late modernity' or 'high modernity'. Who put forward perhaps the most influential theory of late modernity?

To Beck, what is the central concern for all all societies today?

Beck argues that the concept of risk has infiltrated our everyday lives. His thesis contains three elements. What are they?

Firstly, according to Beck, modernity introduced a range of risks that no other historical period ever had to face. Importantly, what does Beck mean by 'risks'?

The hazards faced by historical societies were seen as beyond the control of people, either caused by God or nature. How were the risks faced by modern societies different?

However, in late modernity, risks are seen as spiralling away from human control once again. Why is this?

Why is the fact that risks are now beyond human control ironic?

Furthermore, risks are no longer confined to one country. Why?

In the past, the rich could protect themselves from the hazards that were commonplace in society. How has this changed?

How does Beck refer to class, and why?

The second element of Beck's thesis is that late modernity involves people becoming more 'reflexive'. What is meant by this?

The growth of reflexivity led to people becoming aware of the danger that they, as individuals, were at risk of. They began to seek ways of minimising this risk. As such, what becoming central to the culture of society?

Beck argues that although it is our global, political and technological system that is the cause of the risk, there has been little attempt to confront the problems at this level. Rather, where does risk avoidance operate?

The third and final element of Beck's thesis is individualisation. He links the move towards individualisation with what?

In modern society, most aspects of people's lives were taken for granted. Social position, family membership and gender roles, were all regarded as a 'given'. How has this differed in late modernity?

Beck has been criticised by a number of writers. Which sociologist is sceptical of Beck's distinction between 'risk' and 'hazard', and why?

A second criticism comes from Beck's argument that the response to risk is largely individual. Why has this been a point of contention?

Thirdly, Beck has been strongly criticised for stating that social class is no longer important. Which sociologist counters that rising inequality has meant that class has an increasing impact on citizens?

Similarly, which sociologist argues that the social class of a person is still important because the rich and powerful are able to use their wealth to limit risk?

When and why did postmodernist approaches to sociology emerge?

At their simplest, what do postmodern theories argue?

In order to understand society as it is today, what do postmodernists argue we need to have?

What is one thing the media has done that has had, according to many postmodernists, important consequences for the development of postmodern societies?

Postmodern approaches developed in the context of globalisation, which involves a decline in the significance of time and space. Which sociologist calls this "time-space compression"?

With digital media, people in different parts of the world can communicate with one another very easily. Information, images, ideas and money can all move around the world almost instantaneously. What does this result in, according to Dominic Strinati?

As a result of this, the sense of being grounded in a particular time and place can be lost for individuals. What can this lead to?

With all the information available, individuals can change their identity more easily. What is this resulting in?

How have these changes impacted sociology, according to postmodernists?

From this perspective, there is no such thing as progress. Why?

Who are the two main postmodernists?

How did Lyotard describe marxism and functionalism?

How does Lyotard refer to these 'stories'?

Postmodernists argue that sociological theory (and most other academic subjects) is a metanarrative belonging to which period?

According to Lyotard, why did we have metanarratives in modernity?

However, in our postmodern society, two significant changes have occurred. Firstly, we have developed what Lyotard refers to as an "incredulity towards metanarratives". What does he mean by this?

Secondly, as a consequence of the incredulity towards metanarratives, the search for some sort of 'ultimate truth' has been abandoned and metanarratives have been replaced by "technical language games". What is meant by this?

As such, it can be concluded that postmodern society isn't organised on the basis of a grand plan (as modern society was). Rather, what is it based on?

Why does Lyotard welcome this change?

Like Lyotard, Baudrillard sees society as having entered a new, distinctive phase of postmodernity. However, what does Baudrillard place much more emphasis on in this process?

According to Baudrillard, in contemporary societies, most people are uninterested in social solidarity and politics. Rather, what is the key characteristic of of our postmodern society?

In postmodern society, people live isolated lives. What term does Baudrillard use to describe this?

Baudrillard believes that the media plays a central role in the death of the social. Why?

Baudrillard argues that rather than the media reflecting how people behave (as some sociologists argue), people increasingly reflect the media images of how they behave. What does this create?

Why are Western societies moving ever further away from social relationships and ever closer to relationships with their consumer lifestyles?

Baudrillard note that the importance of objects has little to do with their actual use and much more to do with the meaning they carry. How does Baudrillard refer to these objects, and why?

Baudrillard argues that, in modern society, everything had a name or 'sign'. These signs therefore reflected reality. How has the media changed this in postmodern society?

What does Baudrillard call a sign that exists without any underlying reality?

What does Baudrillard mean by 'simulacrum'?

Baudrillard believes that our society is increasingly based on simulacra. As such, what does he say we now live in?

What ceases to exist in this hyperreality, and why?

Which three sociologists identified a number of consequences for society, resulting from the development of postmodernity?

Firstly, Pakulski and Waters believe that a 'death of class' has occurred. What does this mean?

Likewise, Pakulski and Waters believe that race, gender and age are all much less important than they used to be. Why?

Secondly, Crook, Pakulski and Waters believe that social changes under postmodernism lead to what they call 'hyperdifferentism'. What do they mean by this?

As a result of these two changes, what do postmodernists think of traditional sociological categories for defining different social groups?

Postmodern theories have definitely identified some significant trends in contemporary societies. Give examples:

However, the theories have also received heavy criticism. What is Lyotard accused of making?

Additionally, his theory of metanarratives is contradictory. Why?

While Baudrillard's theory on simulacra and hyperreality has some merit, many believe that he took it too far. Why?

Greg Philo and David Miller argue that the emphasis on language and the media in many postmodern theories is dangerous. Why?

Additionally, Philo and Miller's research suggests that audiences are perfectly capable of thinking about the reality behind television images. What do they argue audiences can distinguish between?

Finally, postmodern theories portray the world as one in which people are free to consume what they want, when they want. Which sociologists argue that this isn't actually the case, due to class inequalities and other social divisions?

Which sociologist produced some of the most recent and most interesting sociological theorising within neo-marxism?

Why is Harvey's neo-marxism unusual?

Postmodernity is seen as involving a fragmentation of society and a move towards image and superficiality in culture. Harvey agrees this has occurred, but disagrees as to why. What is his theory?

What two changes in society resulted in significant shifts in capitalism?

Harvey argues that these changes have also resulted in a 'time-space compression'. What does he mean by this?

How did capitalists respond to these changes?

Harvey refers to this new area as 'flexible accumulation'. What does he mean by this?

Why is flexible accumulation so beneficial to capitalists?

What other significant social change has been very beneficial to capitalists, because it allows products to be made in poor countries then sold in affluent countries?

However, Harvey does note that there have been many non-economic changes that have also impacted capitalism. Give an example:

Nonetheless, Harvey believes that the capitalist economic system and the social divisions it produces remain the primary cause for social change in the contemporary world. As such, why is he highly critical of Lyotard and Baudrillard?

How does Harvey differ from most postmodernists?