What does it mean to 'label' someone?

Studies show that teachers often attach labels to pupils. However, studies show that labels are not based on pupils' actual ability. Rather, what are labels based on?

Howard Becker conducted a study of labelling. Based on interviews with 60 Chicago high school teachers, what did he find?

What did Amelia Hempel-Jorgensen find when studying the concept of the 'ideal' pupil?

Which sociologists argue that schools persistently produce working-class underachievement because of labels and assumptions made by teachers?

According to Dunne and Gazeley, how do state secondary schools normalise the underachievement of working-class pupils?

What is a major reason for the difference in the way teachers respond to the underachievement of students from different classes?

What do Dunne and Gazeley conclude about the way teachers explain and deal with underachievement?

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

Which sociological perspective is particularly in favour of the self-fulfilling prophecy?

Explain the three steps of the self-fulfilling prophecy with regards to teachers' labelling?

How do Robert Rosenthal and Leonora Jacobson show the self-fulfilling prophecy?

Rosenthal and Jacobson's study illustrates which important interactionist principle?

What does 'streaming' involve?

Studies show that when children have been streamed, what is likely to occur?

Once streamed, what can it be difficult to do?

Which sociologist found that children placed in lower streams at age 8 suffer a declined IQ score by the age of 11?

Which social class is more likely to be placed in lower streams?

What do David Gillborn and Deborah Youdell link streaming to?

What is the relationship between streaming and the publication of exam league tables?

What do Gillborn and Youdell mean by 'educational triage'?

According to Gillborn and Youdell, which students are most likely to fall into the 'lost cause' category?

What is meant by 'pupil subculture'?

Why do pupil subcultures emerge?

Which sociologist identifies two concepts to explain how pupil subcultures develop?

What are the two concepts Lacey defines?

What are the two subcultures Lacey identifies?

Who typically enters the pro-school subculture?

How is the pro-school subculture characterised?

Who typically enters the anti-school subculture?

How is the anti-school subculture characterised?

However, although joining the anti-school subculture can solve the issue of lack of status, it can also result in the deterioration of the student's behaviour and grades. In short, what can joining the subculture result in?

Which sociologist studied Beachside, a comprehensive school in the process of abolishing streaming in favour of teaching mixed-ability groups?

Ball found that when the school abolished streaming, the basis for pupils to polarise into subcultures was largely removed and the influence of the anti-school subculture declined. However, although polarisation essentially disappeared, what continued?

Teachers' positive labelling of students, despite the abolition of streaming, was reflected in exam results, suggesting that a self-fulfilling prophecy had occurred. What does Ball's study therefore show?

What are the four other possible responses identified by Peter Woods?

The self-fulfilling prophecy, streaming and pupil subcultures are all the result of what process?

However, the labelling theory has received heavy criticism. Why has it been described as deterministic?

Which study shows that label does not always lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy?

Why do Marxists criticise the labelling theory?

Louise Archer et al focus on the interaction between working-class pupils' identities and school, and how this produces underachievement. What concept do they refer to?

What does the term 'habitus' refer to?

Why is a group's habitus formed?

Although one class's habitus is not intrinsically better than another's, why is middle-class habitus regarded as 'better'?

Because schools have a middle-class habitus, pupils who have been socialised into middle-class tastes gain what?

By contrast, the school devalues the working-class habitus and deems it 'inferior'. What does Bourdieu call this withholding of symbolic capital?

It can therefore be argued that there is a clash between working-class pupils' habitus and the school's middle-class habitus. What impact may this have on working-class pupils?

According to Louise Archer et al, working-class pupils believe that to be educationally successful, they have to do what?

Symbolic violence can lead to pupils seeking out alternative ways to gain status. How do they do so?

Because of the consumption of branded clothing, what are these identities known as?

Nike identities are strongly gendered. For example, what style do many girls adopt?

Style performances are heavily policed by peer groups. Not conforming can be seen as what?

However, although conforming to Nike identities can gain status for working-class children, what negative impact does it have?

Louise Archer et al argues that the education system's middle-class habitus stigmatises working-class pupils' identities. Seen in this light, how can pupils' performances of style be described?

Nike styles also play a part in working-class pupils' rejection of higher education, which they see as what?

Archer et al argue that working-class pupils' investment in Nike identities isn't only a cause of educational marginalisation but also expresses their positive preference for a particular lifestyle. As a result, what may working-class pupils chose to do?

Archer's study deals with the relationship between working-class identity and educational failure. Which study deals with the relationship between working-class identity and educational success?

What did Ingram find?

However, according to Louise Archer et al, what do working-class communities place great emphasis on? How did this impact the boys?

Despite class inequalities in education, many more working-class young people now choose to go to university. However, even here, there is a tension between working-class identity and the habitus of higher education. What did Sarah Evans find when studying 21 working-class A Level students?

Which sociologist points out that self-exclusion from elite and/or distant universities limits many working-class pupils' opportunities for success?

Finally, what should be noted about the cause of the class difference in educational achievement?