Media representations of femininity can be broken into two categories. What are they?

Which sociologist uses the phrase 'symbolic annihilation' to describe the way in which women are represented by the media?

A good example of the symbolic annihilation of women's activities is the media's coverage of women's sports. According to Claire Packet et al, during the 2012 Olympics, what percentage of articles in national newspapers were related to women's sports?

In addition, the little coverage that did exist tended to sexualise, trivialise and devalue female sporting accomplishments. What do Margaret Duncan and Michael Messner observe about commentators?

Tuchman also commented on the limited amount of roles available to women. This comment was later echoed by which sociologist?

How does Jeremy Tunstall describe the presentation of women in the media?

In contrast, Tunstall notes that men are often portrayed in what way?

Which report examined 11 national newspapers over a fortnight in September of 2012, finding that the tabloid press in particular often focus on women's appearance?

The report found that women are often reduced to sexual commodities to be consumed by the 'male gaze'. What is meant by this?

In keeping with the male gaze, which feminist argues that the foremost media message directed at women is that their bodies are a project in need of constant improvement?

Which sociologist argues that the media encourage the belief that slimness equates to success, health, happiness and popularity?

Orbach accuses the media, particularly women's magazines, of encouraging young girls and women to be dissatisfied and unhappy with their bodies. What does this create?

In her research, Kat Banyard found evidence indicating what?

What does David Gauntlett note about 21st century media aimed at young women?

How is today's media aimed at young women different to media aimed at young women from 20 years ago?

Surveys of young women indicate these messages are having what impact?

Which two sociologists argue that new media is empowering young women?

How does Sadie Plant describe the internet?

There is some evidence that the internet has been a very useful tool for challenging negative media representations of women. However, what does other research indicate in contrast to this?

What do Green and Singleton note about women's participation in internet online communities such as Mumsnet?

There have been dozens of studies on how the media represents women and femininity. Can the same be said for men and masculinity?

In 1999, the research group Children Now asked boys between the ages of 10 and 17 about their perceptions of the male characters they saw on TV, in movies and music videos. How many of the boys surveyed had never seen a man doing domestic chores on television?

In his analysis of a wide variety of media, which sociologist claimed that media representations of boys and men typically failed to portray the reality of masculine life?

According to McNamara, what percentage of media representations of males were negative?

McNamara did find that 20% of media representations of masculinity focused on males who behaved in a more 'feminine' way. Which term is applied to men who behave in such a way?

Gauntlett argues that men's media increasingly encourage meterosexual values by portraying men as caring, generous and good-humoured. However, what does he also acknowledge?

Which three perspectives of media representations are explored in this chapter?

Sociologists working in the field of media representations predominantly belong to which perspective?

Feminists have been very critical of the representations of both men and women in the media, believing that the mass media plays a major role in what?

Liberal feminists note that while women's achievements have increased, the media is not reflecting this. Why does this 'cultural lag' exist?

Which sociologist notes that the newsroom is an extremely male culture, which can be off-putting for women?

In 2014 and 2015, how many creators, directors, writers, producers, executive producers, editors and directors of photography working in prime time TV were female?

In addition, in 2014, how many protagonists, major characters and speaking characters in the top 100 grossing films were female?

Women continue to be found in which areas of the film industry?

Marxist feminists believe that the roots of the stereotypical images of men and women are economic. What do they argue?

Marxist femininsts have also focused on the content of women's magazins. Such magazines make profits from advertising, rather than sales. What impact does this have?

By presneting an ideal that is extremely difficult to achieve and maintain, what are capitalist groups guaranteed?

According to radical feminist Naomi Wolf, the media intentionally fools women into believing in what?

Women are heavily encouraged by the media to see these goals as central to their personal happiness, rather than career-orientated goals that would result in them competing with men for positions of power. What do women therefore experience?

However, Angela McRobbie recognises there has been a slight shift in media representations of women in recent years. Much of the media aimed towards young women today embodies what?

Popular feminists have developed their own language to distinguish themselves as 'modern' feminists. What is the main difference between their language and the language used by 'traditional' feminists?

The second perspective considered in this chapter is postmodernism. Postmodernists are positive about media representations of gender. How does David Gauntlett describe the relationship between the media and gender identity?

In fact, what does Gauntlett claim today's mass media does to traditional definitions of gender?

The third perspective examined in this chapter is pluralism. Pluralists claim that the concept of symbolic annihilation underestimates women's ability to do what?

What do pluralists believe the media is reflecting?

However, what do pluralists fail to consider?

Which sociologist conducted a content analysis of magazines and TV programmes consumed by young people in order to examine how sexuality is represented?

Batchelor found that some aspects of sexuality were represented very positively. How?

However, Batchelor's findings also indicate three important limitations in media coverage of youth sexuality. What are they?

Batchelor found that media representations of sexuality in the UK are overwhelmingly heterosexual. When homosexuality does appear, how is it usually represented?

Steve Craig identified three media signifiers of gayness that are common in representations of homosexuality. What are they?

What does Craig mean by 'camp'?

What does Craig mean by 'macho'?

What does Craig mean by 'deviant'?

Research by LGBT.co.uk led them to claim that the LGBT community is undergoing symbolic annihilation. They argue that LGBT characters are often allocated the status of what?

LGBT.co.uk conclude that the UK mass media is demonstrating what sort of bias?

Stonewall attempted to quantify this institutional bias by examining television programmes specifically aimed at youths. Out of a total of 126 hours of such programming, how long was spent on LGBT-related characters and issues, and how much of this time portrayed them realistically and positively?

The majority of the LGBT coverage focuses on gay men, rather than lesbians. What are the two types of lesbian, according to television representation?

However, the power of the 'pink economy' is now being recognised by advertisers, which is leading to more positive representation. What does this term refer to?

What is also encouraging more positive representations of homosexuality?

In addition, social media has been used to generate support for same-sex marriage in both the USA and Northern Ireland. In 2015, how many tweets used the #lovewins hashtag to support same-sex marriage in America?

However, research by the University of Alberta shows the negative aspects of user-generated social media. They tracked all public tweets between 2012 and 2015 that used four particularly negative terms about the LGBT. How many homophobic comments did they record?

There are two wide sociological views of disability. What is the first, and what does it claim?

What is the second, and what does it claim?

Name two sociologists with firsthand experience of disability:

Barnes identifies six reoccurring stereotypes of disabled people which regularly appear in media representations of the disabled. Give examples:

What is meant by 'pitiable and pathetic'?

What is meant by 'sinister and evil'?

What is meant by 'atmospheric or curio'?

What is meant by 'super-cripples'?

What is meant by 'sexually abnormal'?

What is meant by 'incapable of participating in community life fully'?

Lynne Roper is critical of telethons such as Children In Need, which aim to raise money for the disabled. What does she argue?

How does Tom Shakespeare describe media stereotypes of the disabled?

Why are media representations crude and one-dimensional?

However, according to pluralists, what do media representations of the disabled reflect?

Sociologists who are themselves disabled disagree with this pluralist claim. Which sociologist argues that it is important to understand that social reactions to impairments result in the social condition and experience of disability?

The social constructionist theory argues that impaired individuals are disabled by society and that mass media plays a key role in this process. They state that there are three main reasons why mass media representations of disability take the form they do. What are they?

Postmodernists argue that the dominant medical discourse, which has shaped the societal and medical treatment of the disabled, is changing in what way?

Importantly, what should all sociological theories of media representations be cautious about, according to Gauntlett?